Essay on "Vygotksy's Theory of Scaffolding"

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[EXCERPT] . . . .

Vygotsky

All humans have the capacity to learn. More than any other animals, people have evolved to be creative learners and to actively pursue new knowledge and skills. The majority of knowledge is gained through formal education, with structured and organized instruction in reading, mathematics, science, literature, and history. How students best acquire this knowledge has been of interest to psychologists since the early 20th century. Since then, a wide range of child development theories have been suggested, some more applicable in certain areas of learning than others. One of the child development theorists was Lev Vygotsky, who suggested that learning can be enhanced by building on prior knowledge, or what he called "scaffolding." This form of learning can be beneficial when teaching mathematics, since math is a process where one step of learning builds on another.

In the last three decades, research has generated new concepts of learning in five areas. Based on these studies, effective learning processes have shifted from the advantages of drilling and practicing to the benefits of focusing on the students' understanding and application of knowledge (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking). The five areas of study are: 1) memory and structure of knowledge. Memory is now recognized as much more than simple associations. Having a better idea of how learners acquire information has provided insights into understanding comprehension and thinking; 2) analysis of problem solving and reasoning. It has been found that expert learners acquire skills to search a problem space and then use these general strategies to solve problems. There is a definite distinction between how novice learn

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ers and those who are proficient in the subject solve problems; 3) early foundation. Infant and child analysis in controlled settings have significantly furthered knowledge on early learning acquisition. This research has provided more information on the connection between children's learning inclinations and their emergent abilities for establishing information organization and coordination, making inferences and discovering strategies for problem solving. Educators are seeing the importance of taking advantage of the skills and abilities children bring with them to school.; 4) metacognitive processes and self-regulatory capabilities. People can learn how to regulate behavior, which enables self-monitoring and control over their performance. This includes strategies such as predicting outcomes, planning in advance, time management, self-explanation to improve understanding, recognizing lack of comprehension; and 5) Cultural experience and community participation. Participating in social practice is a basic style of learning. It involves being aware of the possible restrictions and resources. "Learning is promoted by social norms that value the search for understanding" (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking). Early learning is furthered by the support of the family and social environment through child-adult activities, which provide toddlers with established norms, rules and processes before going to school.

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory fits right into these five learning essentials. Vygotsky's theoretical underpinning is that social interaction is an integral aspect of cognitive development: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)" (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 57). Vygotsky's theory also states that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development that is reached when children participate socially. The greatest development of the ZPD is based on full social interaction. The level of skill that can be developed with adult support or peer interaction maximizes that which can be attained alone.

Scaffolding is based on a teaching strategy that offers personal support in relationship to the learner's ZPD (Chang, Sung, & Chen). When scaffolding is used for educational purposes, someone who has greater knowledge scaffolds or supports the student in order to build on prior knowledge and acquire new information. The scaffolding assignments are just beyond the level of what the learner can attain by him or herself. The more knowledgeable person offers the scaffolds so the learners are able to attain, with additional support, the tasks that they could otherwise not complete, thus helping them through the ZPD (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking).

According to Vygotsky, scaffolding is the "role of teachers and others in supporting the learner's development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level" (Raymond 176). As learners gain more knowledge, the scaffolding is progressively withdrawn until they are able to independently complete the task or master the concepts. The student evolves into an independent and self-regulating learner and decision maker with "…more sophisticated cognitive systems, related to fields of learning such as mathematics or language, the system of knowledge itself becomes part of the scaffold or social support for the new learning" (ibid). Vygotsky's theory is a process that moves from the consciousness to the end product of socialization. For instance, in language learning, a baby's first words are primarily to communicate, but once this skill is mastered, it becomes internalized and allows "inner speech."

In a classroom, scaffolding may include using models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions, think-aloud modeling and direct instruction (Hartman). When providing instruction in rounding numbers a math teacher may give a list of the steps required to round hundreds starting with the number one. For example, the teacher may say, "Look at the number in the ten's position" (Olson and Platt 180), which provides hints to the students and prompts them to finish the next required steps. Asking questions is another way to help students finish an assignment. The number of questions may be increased and offered until the student can provide the right answer, for example: If a teacher does not receive any response or a correct response after asking the question, "How do we change the singular form of baby to the plural form of babies?" It may be necessary to follow up with a verbal prompt: "What is the rule in this case?" As a reminder that a particular rule is used. If necessary, the teacher then continues with, "What do you do when a word ends in y to make it plural?" To offer a part of the rule (Olson and Platt 186). This is done in scaffolds until the student can do the problem without any hints and is able to do the work on his or her own.

Following the use of teacher-provided scaffolds, the educator may then have the students engage in cooperative learning. In this type of environment, students help each other in small group settings but still have some teacher assistance. This can serve as a step in the process of decreasing the scaffolds provided by the educator and needed by learners (Hartman, 2002). Scaffolding is also helpful for problem-based learning, an educational approach that encourages students to "learn to learn." In such situations, the teacher determines assignments that students can complete independently and the requirements needed to finish successfully. The teacher then designs activities that provide only enough scaffolding for students to overcome any knowledge and skills gap.

Overall, McKenzie defines several characteristics of scaffolding instruction and outcomes: 1) Offers precise directions and lessens any instructional confusion, since the teachers anticipate problems that the students may encounter and then establishes step-by-step instructions that must be done to meet those expectations; 2) Clarifies goals, because students understand why they are doing the work and its importance; 3) Keeps students on task by giving structure and choices for maximum learning; 4) States expectations with rubrics and standards of excellence and includes assessment and feedback; 5) Designates helpful sources to reduce confusion, frustration and time spent and 6) Decreases uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment, because the teachers test their lessons to determine possible problem areas and then refine lessons to eliminate difficulties.

I observed the 7th and 8th grade math classes at Central R-III Junior HIgh School, Park Hills. Most students are white, with a few Latino's and one special child (No Child Left Behind) About 23 were in each class. I hypothesized that using Vygotsky's theory would help those students who needed additional support to understand the mathematics concepts and that it should be incorporated more into the classroom structure and methodology. This would help students at all levels of learning.

There was a definite differences between the classes I observed. Some of them were very traditional. The teacher sat in the front of the classroom and the structure was lecture led or students were asked to read the information in their books. Assignments for the week were usually written on the board. While writing on the board, the students are referred to their books open in front of them. In all cases, except one, the information provided to the students was at their level and kept the students' attention. Similarly, in most of the classes, there was an opportunity for the students to ask questions. Either the teacher walked around while the students were doing the math problems, so they could ask for help, or the students worked together in pairs or groups to discuss the math problems. Some teachers helped students more with… READ MORE

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Quoted Instructions for "Vygotksy's Theory of Scaffolding" Assignment:

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Field Experience Project Paper: Vygotksy*****'s theory of scaffling. If you can think of a different topic, such as learning styles, class room management or someother topic to go along with my notes feel free to do so.

1. Define/discuss the subject related to the psychology of adolescence that you are working with: Example: Scaffling in a classroom. What is it you want to know? How dows this topic relate to the adolescents that you are observing?

2. Give a bsic explanationor synopsis of the research that*****'s been done, with some basic conclusions. Make usre you cite esearchers and authors where appropriate.

3. What do you expect to see or hear in the classroom in realation to the topic you*****'re working on and in relation to #2. (kind of like hypothesizing)

4. Describe who you are studying. Approxiamte age range, gender, race how many, what schoo? Central R-III Junior HIgh School, Park HIlls, 7th and 8th grade math classes. Boys and girs mostly white, a few Latino*****'s and one special child (No Child Left Behind) About 23 in each class.

5. Analyze what you have seen and heard relative to your topic and report your findings. How do your findings relate to your *****"hypothes*****'? Was it correct or different and how? How do your finding relate to the research you*****'ve learned?

6. What are your conclusions? Page 5. State what you say, conclusion restate your thesis.

I also need an outiline of this paper.

If you feel you can not do this paper, please let me know.

HERE ARE MY NOTES FROM THE CLASSES:

PERIOD I, PREALGEBRA. looking around the room there is chalk board on 3 walls. In the corner of one wall are calculators. On one board is what they will be doing everyday for the week. The sets are in straight rows facing the front with the teachers desk in the front. Before he takes attendance they have bell ringers (problems to work on and hand in on Friday, they have bell ringers everyday), then he collects the homework, then he takes row.

He uses the side board to write probems on the board and discusses them with the students. He refers to the book when writing the problems on the board. He explains the work in language appropriate for this age group. There is a lot of class participation. After covering the material he assigns homework, while student*****'s are working on homework he answers their questions and walks around the room to help them with their homework. There is one special student in the class and a teacher*****'s aide takes notes for him. He leaves the classroom and comes back. He doesn*****'t participate much in class and sits in the back. Students help each other. The teacher uses humor in his class room. When the bell rings he reminds them to have their homework first thing in the morning and that he is available before and after school for tutoring.

PERIOD II BASIC MATH This a small class with only 3 boys in it. First thing the teacher tells them is to get their calculators. She lets them use their calculators for basic math skills. They do their bell ringers and hand them in . She collects their homework and takes attendance.

She also has 3 chalk boards. One with information on it for the weeks lessons, too. Her class room is set up where her desk is at the side and the students face forward. She uses an overhead projecter for the problems for the bell ringers. She writes problems on the board and the class participates in figuring out the answers. After lecture time she hands out a worksheet for them to do. She shows the class the proper way to use a protractor. They are having a test the next day and the worksheet is for the test review. If they had in the worksheet they will get 5 bonus points. She allow the students to work with a partner and to use their calculators. She walks around and helps the students if they have questions. She does not have any special students in her class room and they are all white children.

PERIOD IS IN THE SAME ROOM AS PERIOD ONE AND THE SAME TEACHER TOO. He uses more discipline with this class. Bellringer are being worked on and homework collected from the day before and attendance is taken.

There are 2 studednts with broken hands and he has the lecture notes alreay printed off for them. He tells them a story about breaking his arm. There is one student taking a test while he is lecturing. He is a multitasker. He uses comparisons to explain meabolim. Eample of similar-kids same shpe but taller. Congruent-identical twins.

This class doesn*****'t talk as much. He left the notes from the first hour class on the board, and tells the class to take notes. There is another special student he doesn*****'t takes notes, lays head on desk, but does answer a question. The teacher refers to book when exanmple is on the board.

With this class he does the first part of the homework together. He asks the students in this class more questions individually than the other class. He helps this class a lot more on homework. He lets this class work with a partner. He said if they use a calculater they must show what they typed into the calculator. He did howerver take less time for lecture.

FOURTH PERIOD: Basic Math class again in the same room as period II. The bell rings and bell ringers are done and the overhead projector is used for the bell ringers. The material from the last class is on the board. This class is a little more talkative she has to tell them to quit done quit a bit. She shows them how to use protractors too. There is a lot of class paraticipation. Has everyone do the problems instead of one person answering like the first hour class did. They use calculators for simple math skills. Ther was a student sitting in the back all alone and she has her move up. She shows the students in this class 2 different ways to come up with the same answer. She didn*****'t do this in the first class. There was a lot of talking between students. She goes through the material faster than the other class. In this class she went over homework answers from the day before. She hands them out their worksheets and has them get into pars. This calss gets louder thean the last. Bell rings and they are out of there.

PERIOD SIX, IN SAME CLASS ROOM AS FIRST PERIOD. PREALGEBRA: The first 20 minutes is silent reading time, the whole school has this because they want the children to read better. Not alot of reading got done though. He collected homework after silent reading period and took attendance. Old knowledge used to realate to new material. Talks louder in this class. Explains the topic a little bit different in this class. Uses similis*****' like the Farley tiwn. Kids did very bad on the last quiz so he is going to reteach that information later during the third quarter. 50% made F*****'s. Assigns homework and walks around toom a lot helping students. We not allowed to have a partner. He draws more examples on the board in this class. Helped this class more on their homework, class not as noisy.

Again if you think of a different topic that would go with my notes feel free to use it. And if you tin you can not do this paper, please let me know and I will cancel my order.

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