Thesis on "Teacher Qualifications and Student Performance: A Review"

Thesis 8 pages (2864 words) Sources: 5 Style: APA

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Teacher Qualifications and Student Performance: A Review of NCLB-Related studies

Among the educational reforms undertaken by local, state, and federal governments in the last half century, there has perhaps been none as important, far-reaching, and ambitious as the "No Child Left Behind" (NCLB) Act passed into law in January, 2002. This legislation was the culmination of more than two decades of work towards improving school and teacher accountability through measuring student progress toward learning outcomes in order to improve American education relative to that of other nations. Through the implementation of standardized assessments with all students at all levels of elementary and secondary education, the reform was intended to provide data that would help determine how schools were performing relative to others in their states, how teachers were performing relative others in their schools, and how students were performing relative to defined learning objectives. The intent of the law was to structure an oversight system in which suitable performance would be defined at the state and local levels (albeit with federal oversight) and performance against standards for both individuals and institutions would be either rewarded or repaired through intervention programs. Because of the implications of the law for everything from special education to teacher salaries to student graduation rates to school budgeting concerns, it had immediate and wide-spread impact on the American educational system. The response which the law's implementation engendered was equally wide-spread, and a broad diversity of opinions arose concerning its effectiveness in achieving the intended goals.

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Among the most important issues addressed in the legislation, and consequently among the issues which has received the most debated attention, is the role of teacher qualifications in the education process. Although the ultimate goal of the law was to improve student achievement and to ensure that all students receive a quality education, the coupling of this achievement with teacher performance and qualifications led some to believe that teachers were being scapegoated for poor student performance where it existed. Even when such blame was not made explicit, as Kimmelman (2006) points out, "teachers who had taught for many years were being required to demonstrate subject matter competency in the core academic subjects they taught" (2). Of course, such a requirement might be justifiable if there exists a demonstrated research link between teacher qualifications and student performance. But is there such a link? In the years following the implementation of NCLB much research has been conducted in order to determine where teacher qualifications are in fact related to student performance and if the teacher performance component of the law is therefore justified.

In this paper, the question of how teacher qualifications have been shown to be linked to student performance under the auspices of the NCLB regime will be reviewed. The research literature will be considered in order to find data-driven studies that address the importance of teacher qualifications to student achievement. The requirement for data-driven studies is crucial. Traditional methods (pre-NCLB) for evaluating teacher qualifications included such factors as:

1. Characteristics deduced by a theory

2. Characteristics determined by the pupils

3. Characteristics defined by specialists

4. Characteristics derived from the functional analysis of the teacher

5. Characteristics derived from a role analysis of the teacher

6. Empirical research on teacher characteristics

7. Predictive research of teacher characteristics. (Schlusmans, 1978, 19-20)

These methods may, in fact, still be theoretically valid for determining an individual teacher's qualifications relative to other teachers. However, of these methods, only the final two speak to the role of data in addressing teacher qualifications. NCLB makes it clear that teachers will be qualified by reference to "objective" means such as participation in certification programs and performance on state assessments that measure their knowledge of core content in the academic subjects they teach, as well as on assessments of competence based around performance relative to predefined teaching standards (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Ultimately, then, teachers will also be judged by their student's own standardized testing scores. Therefore, this paper will focus on research measuring the connection between teacher qualifications, as determined in a variety of ways found in the literature, and student assessment scores.

Statement of the Problem

Because of the key role that measuring the connection between student assessment scores and teacher qualifications plays in determining such factors school performance and teacher pay, this study will focus on that connection. Research which has been conducted to measure the connection will be reviewed, analyzed, and summarized. Important teacher qualification factors that are shown to be linked to higher student assessment scores (or, alternately, shown to be irrelevant) will be highlighted. Therefore, this study will consist entirely of a research compilation study designed to determine how teacher qualifications are linked to student assessment.

This research is believed to be important because it lies at the heart of the NCLB's education agenda. By recognizing how teacher qualifications, as measured in a variety of ways, impact student assessments, both teachers and schools can adjust their employment/hiring strategies, their classroom instruction approaches, and the like. It should be pointed out, as David Berliner (2005) has, that the measuring of teacher qualifications faces a number of inherent interpretive and cultural complications making standardization and measurement "near impossible." However, for the purposes of this study no judgments are made about the efficacy of linking teacher qualifications to student performance, or the validity of measuring teacher qualifications in the first place. Rather, this study will merely provide a summary analysis of the research data as it relates to the issue at hand.

Review of the Related Literature

Because of the importance that linking teacher qualifications and student assessment has taken on since the passage of NCLB, the researcher believed it was important to review at least one research study which measured the link before the law was passed. Linda Darling-Hammond (2000) used data taken from survey analysis and case studies in each of the 50 states measuring "teacher quality," and compared this data to student performances on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). The study involved the inclusion of both qualitative and quantitative data designed to measure whether factors related to teacher qualifications were positively correlated to student assessment scores. Darling-Hammond first determined whether states had policy programs in place designed to control and enhance teacher qualifications, and then attempted to achieve a relative rank of these states, so that the states which were more directly involved in regulating teacher qualifications were identifiable. She then compared assessment scores and relative improvement of scores to determine whether those states which were involved in regulating teacher qualifications scored better on assessments. She found that, even when controlling for such factors as assessment scores reported for special education and immigrant populations, the differences between assessment scores in states which did not strictly emphasize qualifications and those which did were impressive. She then computed correlational analysis between the NAEP and a national database indicating staff assessment scores and found strong and significant associations between teacher qualifications and assessment.

As the Darling-Hammond study showed, the difficulties of measuring teacher qualifications can be daunting due to the diversity of approaches taken. Therefore the researcher thought it advisable to consider a study focusing on specific sites within given school districts in order to determine whether the teachers in such school districts considered to be better qualified in fact have students with higher assessment scores. Milanowski, Kimball, and White (2004) conducted a "standards-based" evaluation of teacher qualification and performance ratings within the Cincinnati Public School District, the Washoe County (Nevada) School District, and a learning center in San Fernando, California. Utilizing standardized teacher evaluation scores from each of the three subject sites, and measuring that against student achievement scores, the authors found that, even when controlling for such factors as teacher experience and student poverty, higher teacher evaluations (presumably indicative of higher teacher qualifications) were positively correlated to higher student performance on assessment scores. In fact, the researchers found, specifically, that more years of experience actually had a negative impact on score achievement, while qualification ratings were effectively associated with higher scores.

Boyd et al. (2008) consider the gap in New York City teacher qualifications between high poverty schools and others in order to determine whether student scores in those schools were associated with qualifications. They argue that the gap between teacher qualifications across NYC schools is narrowing due to a sorting process relevant to NCLB requirements, and their goal is to determine whether this sorting process has meant that students in high poverty schools which have previously seen poor performance due to poor teacher qualifications now in fact have improve performance with the arrival of better qualified teachers. The researchers constructed a database of student exam scores and lagged scores, with comparative data for each student relative to special needs, ethnic and language issues, and other demographic characteristics. They then linked that data to an "enriched" data file for teachers with measures such as certification status, experience, standardized test scores, and the like. Finally, they related these data sets to… READ MORE

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Quoted Instructions for "Teacher Qualifications and Student Performance: A Review" Assignment:

“

Research Paper

The purpose of the Research Paper is to provide the student an opportunity to investigate a specific issue topic and research current literature in investigating sociological issues impacting the system of education. The Research Paper utilizes previous skills developed in foundational courses and applies them within the context of the relation of social behavior and education.

Research Paper Learning Outcomes

Following the completion of the Research Paper, the learner will be able to:

Utilize research protocols in defining, researching, analyzing and synthesizing appropriate scholarly research within the topic/issue selected.

Demonstrate critical thinking skills in the implementation of the research activity as evidenced through the application of the research process using the scientific method identified in this guide.

Demonstrate grammatically appropriate writing skills as evidenced in the quality of the written report. The American Psychological Association Style Format will be used in this paper.

Demonstrate analytical and evaluative attributes as evidenced in the selection of the reference resources, development of the paper, succinct and logical organization of the information.

Demonstrate research expertise in locating, identifying, selecting and application of literature resources within the context of the paper and the oral presentation.

Demonstrate written communication skills.

Evaluate professional/academic literature in specific fields of study.

Research Paper Description

The Research Paper is a formal paper in which the learner selects a relevant topic of interest.

The learner researches the issue/topic using scientific methodology, compiling relevant literature and applying these concepts in the development of the issue.

The research issue should have a limited scope or specific defined area.

Scholarly journals, books and periodicals are to be used for literature sources.

This Research Paper requires an annotated Bibliography.

A guide for the annotated bibliography is provided.

The minimum number of scholarly journals to be reviewed in this issue research paper for development of the content is five articles. It is important that the researcher supports the issue using literature. As a guide:

Find at least one article that provides data describing the issue/topic, who or what is impacted *****“ why it is important.

Find at least two articles that describe the situation. Find articles that have data.

Find at least two articles that describe what can be done about the problem. Find those that have specific interventions and some data.

Find a data-based article on the topic of interest.

Definition of "scholarly journal" *****“ A scholarly journal, for the purposes of the course, are those journals that are research based, may be a publication of a professional association, may be a journal such as Journal of Psychology, Educational Psychology, Phi Delta Kappan, Journal of Sociology, etc. Professional journals should address topics that are concerned with teaching-learning and are authored. The majority of research articles are primary sources. That is, based upon the observations and experience of the individuals. Articles from the World Wide Web, generally do not meet the criteria of a scholarly journal. Some professional journals can be reached through the World Wide Web. Magazines and newspapers are secondary sources. Overall, books are secondary sources, such as a textbook. However, they may be a primary source. An example would be an author who discusses a research project that the author conducted.

Research Paper Guide

The Research Paper Guide illustrates the use of scientific method, for exploring and developing a topic or issue of interest. A review of current scholarly literature is conducted on the topic of choice and used in the development of the paper. The research paper represents 30% of the student grade, 30 points.

Format: Issue Research Paper for HIS: 324 History of American Education

Introduction

Describe the issue. Discuss why it was selected, the perspective of the approach, and the scope of the paper. In essence, describe in this area what is being covered in the paper. Be specific and to the point. This is an important part of a paper; it engages the reader and set the scope of the paper.

Possible Topics

K through 12: Home Schooling

Magnet Schools/Charter Schools

Moral Education: The riddle of religion in the schools

Education Reform

School Choice Vouchers

"No Child Left Behind"

The Role of Teacher's Unions

School-to-Work Programs

Ability Grouping and Tracking

Proposals to Reform Middle Schools

Should the U.S. emulate other countries?

Special Education; the Inclusion Debate

Proposals to Help Potential Drop-Outs

High School Reform Proposals; Theodore Sizer

Effective Schools Research

Education of Women and Girls

Education of Minority Populations

Standardized Testing

Statement of the Issue to be Investigated

Describe why the issue/topic is relevant or what the problem/issue is. It is important to provide literature sources in support of the importance of the need/issue/topic. For example, let's say you are interested in researching the issue of social class and education. Overall, what makes this topic/issue so important that you are spending time/energy researching it? What is the impact of the problem if nothing is done and or is done to correct the situation? What are some interventions that have worked? What can be done about the issue?

Literature Review

This section documents the relevant research reflecting the topic of the research paper. In this section a paraphrased narrative of the actual research studies are reported. The literature review should present a review of current literature in the issue area. In general, the literature review should:

Identify what the issue is; indicate what has happened in the specific research of the topic; describe the study, sample, findings, and important points from the discussion in the research article; describe any variables that may influence the findings of the research.

Identify key elements of the issue they may be instructional, legal, ethical, social, etc. Discuss what is projected if nothing is done and/or what has been tried. Support this section with relevant literatures/resource citations.

Explore comprehensively the opposing positions if there are pros and cons of an issue that are of interest.

Consider, when presenting an analysis of a research article, the following:

What was done

Target population

Who did it

What was found?

Implications of the findings to learning

Findings

In this section the major findings are presented. Select at least three, from your judgment, that were the most important in the reviewed research. Provide a brief introduction to the section and then present the findings. This section is brief.

Discussion

This is an expansion of the findings section. This section is a reflection of your ability to analyze and interpret the content of the articles that have been read and apply it to the topic of interest. It is presented in a narrative format and based on the research, your critical thinking/analysis of the situation/issue. This would include:

The topic/issue. Be specific.

An analysis and synthesis of the literature.

Support of your perspective with relevant literature. This is an important section as it reflects your ability to analyze the problem, critique what has happened, and then to hypothesize potential solutions for the problem.

Support of your impressions through exploratory and argumentative discussion. Remember, this is your research and your impressions. Use the studies to support your discussion.

An overall conveyance of your evaluation of the research findings.

Implications of the findings from the studies *****“ state the three findings and discuss.

Evaluation of the literature: quality research, bias, concerns with validity/reliability, sample size, findings.

Conclusion

In this section, summarize in a general way but completely: what the paper covers; what was done, why the topic was selected, the problem/issue briefly stated, the approach that was used, findings, solutions, and relative comments you as the researcher may have. In this section, a reader should be able to peruse the conclusion/summary and have a good idea what the researcher did and what was found.

References (Annotated Bibliography)

Here include all references used in the development of this paper. This will be the annotated bibliographies that have been prepared. Use American Psychology Association Style. (Note: This section starts a new page.)

Organization of the Paper

Cover sheet: title of the paper, course name, your name

Running header

Abstract of the paper (the summary and conclusion of the paper may be used for this)

Body of the paper: introduction, issue statement, literature review of the issue, findings, discussion and conclusions.

Appendix (tables, maps, etc.)

References: a reference listing using APA format (note: for this paper, the references are annotated using the Annotated Bibliography Guide). Remember, the quality of the references will impact the development of the paper.

Format

Use APA style to format your paper.

Annotated Bibliography

The purpose of the Annotated Bibliography is to assist the learner in developing research analysis skills including: critical thinking; writing and literature research skills; overall quality of the selected articles.

Respond to the following questions for each article:

Name of the article, including use of the complete bibliographic citation for each article (APA style).

Summary/abstract of the article *****“ annotation includes the following:

Who? (conducted the research or project, wrote the article)

What? (was done)

How? (was it done) *****” (What did the author(s) do - for example: a literature search, historical research etc.)

What were the findings?

Contributions? (findings that may have been made to new information on the topic area/applications)

She sent this to all students,

You are going to need a minimum of 5 research articles from published journals and the paper will be about 8-10 pages, excluding the cover and bibliography pages.

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