Thesis on "Stress Refers to a State of Tension"

Thesis 6 pages (2133 words) Sources: 4 Style: APA

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Stress refers to a state of tension that the mind and the body are subjected to in response to real or perceived threats. The term stress was originally coined by the Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye in 1936, who defined stress as "the non-specific response of the body to any demand for change" [AIS] There is no one single definition for the term and a generally accepted definition of stress is "a condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize." [AIS] During his experimental studies on animal subjects, Selye noted that exposing animals to irritant and dangerous physical or chemical stimulus (such as heavy noise, glaring light, etc.) resulted in a common spectrum of pathologic response that included stomach ulcerations, adrenalin overload, lymph tissue shrinkage, etc. Selye also coined the term stressors, which refer to the stimuli and proved that prolonged or chronic exposure to stress stimuli resulted in the manifestation of diseases such as arthritis, heart attack, stroke, kidney failure etc. In the test subjects. This finding added a new perspective to the composite etiology of diseases. [AIS] An overview of stress with a brief discussion of stress induced homeostatic mechanisms would help us better understand the subject.

Stress (A subjective experience)

Stressors have varied effects on different people and so stress is regarded as a subjective phenomenon. An interesting example would be the roller coaster ride and how it is perceived differently by different people. While for some the roller coaster would be a joy ride for others it would be a nightmare. [AIS] Though stress is widely regarded as a negative phenomenon, research has shown that stress within a certain threshold is very beneficial and productive for the person. This positive stress is what Selye defined as eustress. [AIS] Participation in a sports meet for instance would create stress but it prepares the body for the event and helps the athlete achieve his peak potential. So moderate levels of stress can be very stimulating. Chronic stress on the otherhand is overwhelming stress, which the adaptive mechanisms of the body cannot handle resulting in total breakdown of the nervous system. Chronic stress is involved in the etiology of a wide variety of diseases and is thought to hasten biological aging.

Chronic Stress

Stress responses or what is called as the adaptive mechanisms, can be both beneficial (in the short run) as well as detrimental. (In the long run) A study by Gregory E. Miller, Ph.D and colleagues from the Washington University compared the effects of chronic stress on immune system. For the study, the researchers compared 25 parents of children undergoing treatment for cancer with 25 healthy parents who served as the control group. After obtaining the initial blood samples, the researchers took periodic salivary cortisol measurements for two days. Results from the study clearly indicated that parents of cancer children had high levels of stress compared to the control group. One important finding of the study was that the parents of the cancer children had lower sensitivity to glucocorticoid hormone, which is involved in the anti-inflammatory mediation process by controlling the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1B, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor. Dr. Miller, the chief researcher of the study says, "These findings suggest a novel mechanism through which psychological stress could influence the onset and/or progression of conditions that involve excessive inflammation, like allergic, autoimmune, cardiovascular, infectious and rheumatologic illnesses," [Gregory E. Miller, 2002]

A more recent study in which Dr. Miller was also a co researcher revealed stress-induced alterations in immunological mechanisms. For this study, the researchers again compared cancer caregivers (high level of stress) with a control group of individuals without such stress. The researchers found that even among the caregivers who had comparable cortisol levels with the control group individuals, there was a distinct change in the immune system response. It was found that gene expression of the monocytes were significantly altered among the caregivers such that they had a reduced response to anti-inflammatory effects of cortisol. They were also found to be more responsive to the pro-inflammatory factor 'kappa B, keeping them in what is known as the 'immunologically activated state'. As Dr. Miller explains, "caregivers have similar cortisol levels as controls, their cells seem to be 'hearing' less of this signal. In other words, something goes awry in caregivers' white blood cells so they are not able to 'receive' the signal from cortisol that tells them to shut down inflammation." [Gregory E. Miller, 2008] The researchers conclude that this stress induced immunologically activated state might predispose them to many diseases such as diabetes, depression and other cardiac conditions.

Several studies have implicated stress in the development of metabolic syndrome (chandola et.al, 2006) and coronary heart diseases (Bunker et.al, 2003). One research studied the relationship between occupational stress and cardiovascular mortality. This longitudinal study observed 812 employees (545 men, 267 women) working at a metal industry in Finland. All the subjects were free of any cardiovascular complications during the baseline test conducted in 1973. Subsequent examinations were conducted at 5 years and 10 years from the baseline examination. The study utilized the 'job strain model' and the 'effort reward imbalance model' to find the association between job related stress and cardiovascular mortality. The national mortality register (1973-2001) was consulted. The study revealed that employees with high job stress as indicated by high demands, lower control had a 2.2 times (95% confidence interval 1.2 to 4.2) higher cardiovascular mortality risk compared to fellow employees with low job related strain. When the data was assessed using the effort reward model, it showed that employees who had effort reward imbalance had a 2.4 times (1.3 to 4.4) increased risk for cardiovascular mortality. The data also revealed higher serum cholesterol levels and BMI levels among stressed employees at 5 and 10-year follow up examinations. These findings strongly suggest that work related stress could be a high risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. [M Kivimaki, 2002]

Allostatis: The Stress Response

Stress response refers to the changes in the neural and endocrine mechanisms triggered by environmental stimuli. The physical as well as emotional responses to stress are induced by a set of hormones and chemical messengers. It is an evolutionary mechanism in which all the vital systems of the human body such as the heart, lungs, blood vessels, immune system, and the brain adapt to the perceived or real changes. Stressors can be both external and internal and stress can be either acute or chronic. [UMMC] When the body's homeostasis is disturbed, autonomic and neurohormonal reflexes are evoked to either remove the stressor or to enable the body to cope with it. The autonomic nervous system is in charge of the homeostatic regulatory processes. While the sympathetic nervous system gets the body prepared for emergency situation by a series of neurohormonal changes, the parasympathetic nervous system acts as a counterbalance to restore the body back from the emergency state to normal state. [The Franklin Institute]

The hypothalamus, pituitary gland and the adrenalin gland are involved in the homeostatic process of the body and are collectively referred as the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing hormone, which prompts the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). [Wellcome Trust] The adrenal glands situated on top of the kidneys are pressed into action to release glucocorticoids, the most important of which is cortisol, which is also called as 'the stress hormone'. [Elizabeth Scott] Cortisol increases blood sugar level and prepares the body for a fight or flight response. Cortisol also improves immunity and memory function. However, this sympathetic overdrive cannot be healthy over long periods of time. Sustained high levels of cortisol in the blood stream is detrimental to the body and could cause a variety of complications including high risk for stroke, hyperglycemia, loss of bone density etc. [Elizabeth Scott]

The Para sympathetic nervous system acts to restore the system back to normalcy. The preganglionic nerve releases the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine that binds with the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors of the organs. For example CHRM2, the muscarinic receptor of the heart muscle helps to restore the heart back to normalcy from the sympathetic cardiac overdrive. [Hautala et.al, 2006] Maintaining the internal balance is critical as prolonged circulation of biochemicals can lead to sympathetic or parasympathetic shock. Prolonged hormonal overdrive also increases the possibility of the endocrine hormones crossing the blood brain barrier. It is well-known that elevated levels of sympathetic hormones such as glucocorticoids (cortisol, in particular) can have a damaging effect on the cells of the hippocampus. Research has attested that GC exposure affects hippocampus cells by affecting neuronal metabolism. [Sapolsky, 1986]

Stress Management

Since chronic stress and the accumulation of high levels of stress hormones are very dangerous and predispose a person to a wide array of stress induced diseases, it is essential to destress our body and mind regularly. Exercises are considered the first choice treatment in the management of stress and in the control of stress… READ MORE

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