Term Paper on "Shattering the Glass Ceiling Breaking Barriers for Women"

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[EXCERPT] . . . .

Shattering the glass ceiling.

History of the glass ceiling

Although the fact of the glass ceiling has probably been around since the first woman entered the first job market anywhere on earth, the term itself originate din a Wall Street Journal report in 1986. The report, about corporate women, "most frequently refers to barriers faced by women who attempt, or aspire, to attain senior positions (as well as higher salary levels) in corporations, government, education and nonprofit organizations. It can also refer to racial and ethnic minorities and men when they experience barriers to advancement" (Lockwood, 2004).

Although workplace discrimination is illegal in the United States it exists in a number of sub-rosa forms, including hiring practices and availability of training and development opportunities that can be offered to men -- especially men not in the same job description as women -- that are very hard to pinpoint and fight.

However, on a statistical basis alone, it remains a very important issue, and one worth solving, because representation of women in the workforce is rising. In 1998, women comprised 455 of the workforce, with men comprising 55%. By 2008, it is predicted that women will comprise 48% of the workforce, and men 52% (Lockwood, 2004). Despite this increase, and despite the Civil Rights Act of 1964 mandating equal pay for men and women for substantially

II. Why does the glass ceiling problem still exist?

Indeed, as a major point in the discussion, the fact that the discrimination that can lead to the 'glass ceiling effect' can be carried out so clandestinely is the

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underlying reason the problem still exists. Breaking it down from there, however, one can posit a number of specifics that are likely to contribute to women's continuing glass ceiling problems.

A recent article in HR magazine identified a raft of possibilities that may contribute to the glass ceiling problem. Among them, and notably among those that are harder to pinpoint and counteract, are that "women who do not have opportunities to gain additional competencies are not likely to have the skills, such as specific managerial experience, required to compete for and be awarded equal positions as men and close the pay gap" (Lockwood, 2004).

Other 'invisible' reasons include:

1. The discomfort of white male managers with those unlike themselves (e.g., women and women of color).

2. The lack of accountability or incentives in organizations to develop diversity" (Catalyst, 2003, cited by Lockwood, 2004).

In addition, if one wants to consider the role of self-fulfilling prophecy in the matter, Lockwood (2004) also noted that, compared with 23% of women in 1996, only 30% of women in 2003 believed that their chances of being promoted to senior positions in their own organization had greatly improved in the previous five years; a gain in the 'belief' factor -- doubtless predicated on observation, and subsequently incorporated in the woman's belief system -- is certainly not a figure that offers much hope of significant change any time soon. Moreover, "Only 11% of women believed opportunities in the United States have improved in general " (Catalyst, 2003, cited by Lockwood, 2004).

Catalyst, an organization that has tracked women's progress for many years, notes, too, that the view of a company's CEO regarding women's advancement in the organization is critical if women in that organization are to reach high-ranking spots (cited by Lockwood, 2004). Catalyst also found that women and CEOs agreed on this fact. Surprisingly, nearly two-thirds (64%) of CEOs believed "it was the organization's responsibility to change to meet the needs of women in management" (Catalyst, 2003, cite by Lockwood, 2004). Not surprisingly, the same report noted that forty-seven percent of women expressed that exclusion form informal networks (often referred to as the good-ole-boy network) hindered their advancement, while only 18% of CEOs believed that to be true (Catalyst 2003, cited by Lockwood, 2004). On the other hand, CEOs believed more strongly that lack of mentoring was a hindrance to advancement (21%), while that factor was cited by only 16% of women.

However, as more than one researcher has noted, and as in indicated above, quantifiable factors -- statistics -- don't necessarily explain the phenomenon.

One must begin to look below the surface to find underlying causes. In fact, much glass-ceiling literature discusses communication styles as a factor in promotion to high positions. In the corporate world, some studies have shown that the communication style of men, that is, direct and factual, is preferred to that of women, a style that usually tends to be more interpersonal (Lockwood, 2004). The conclusion Lockwood (2004) cited was that women who do not use the more direct style were, conversely, more likely to advance than those who adopted the male style. Lockwood did not offer an explanation for this discrepancy between the stated preference and the success of women who did not reflect it.

Even research by the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) was unable to explain the gap or the rather contrarian ways it expresses itself at times. They did conclude, however, that even taking into account differing work patterns of men and women (with women taking time off for childrearing, and so on), woman earned only 80%, approximately, of men's earnings in 2000. The GAO attempted to justify the gap by noting the factor of childrearing and suggesting that men and women handle their family responsibilities differently (GAO, October 2003, cited by Lockwood, 2004).

The Instituted for Women's Policy Research (IWPR) explained the gap more extensively, noting that the factors explaining the differences include work experience, education and lack of opportunities" (Caiazza 2003, cited by Lockwood, 2004). Perhaps the most distressing part of their findings were that the gap increases with age; as men reach the heights of their earning power, women are falling even farther behind. Women between the ages of 45 and 54 earned only 75% as much as men (Caiazza 2003, cited by Lockwood, 2004).

Lockwood (2004) concluded that:

According to research, the advancement of women to senior positions is paradoxical at best. While there has been some movement, much remains unchanged. Advancement continues to be a challenge due to the lack of support at the organizational level from organizational culture, policies and practices, insufficient training opportunities to develop new competencies, lack of role models and mentors, and few opportunities for advancement abroad, often due to cultural values and norms.

Wages do not, however, explain the pervasiveness of the continuing problem. Lockwood, (2004) notes that in 2002, women held only 105 of the line corporate officer positions in Fortune 500 companies. They did slightly better in holding corporate board of director positions, increasing from 105 in 1995 to 15% in 2002. In Fortune 500 corporations, also, representation of women as CEOs is also low, with only seven female CEOs of those companies in 2004, signifying an increase from 0.2% to 1.4% between 1995 and 2004. (However, it might be noted that Carly Fiorina, CEO of Hewlett Packard, resigned her post in early February 2005 when the board lost confidence in her; arguably, this reduces the representation significantly, if not to its 1995 level.)

The glass ceiling for potential CEOs, therefore, appears to be made of almost unbreakable Plexiglas. However, the situation is not much better anywhere in the ranks of the it (information technology) field. Lemons & Parzinger (2001) offer several explanations for its particular persistence in that field. They note that in it, the glass ceiling may result from "educational aspects and family characteristics, corporate cultures, or sociological factors." They also enumerate a number of those factors, especially the educational factors. They note findings of a National Science Foundation report that says:

Women still take fewer high-level math and science courses in high school

Women earn fewer science and engineering bachelor's, master's, or doctoral degrees

Women remain less likely than white males to be employed in science and engineering" (Lemons & Parzinger, 2001).

Even when women and men in it are equally well educated, the gap remains, standing at about $13,200 "between men and women with science and engineering doctorates" (Lemons & Parzinger, 2001).

They, too, cite covert discrimination, but bring sociological factors into the discussion, noting that "Covert discrimination may begin many years before a woman enters the career path of technology" (Lemons & Parzinger, 2001) as little girls are taught at home to be nurturers. The culture of the organization itself, however, was also noted as problematical, especially in it. They cite Rosabeth Moss Kanter's work in identifying four 'acceptable' roles for women -- mother, confidante, seductress and pet -- noting that women who operate outside these roles are considered deviants. In turn, they are then regarded as "feminists" and that, too, holds negative workplace consequences for them (Lemons & Parzinger, 2001). It reads like a rock and a hard place situation, which Lemons & Parzinger indicate that it is. Moreover, they say that tokenism, too, plays a part.

They also identified logistical/sub rosa reasons, including that women have to fight for projects of value, projects that… READ MORE

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Quoted Instructions for "Shattering the Glass Ceiling Breaking Barriers for Women" Assignment:

“

TERM PAPER TITLE:

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING: Breaking Barriers For Women

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

I. History of The Glass Ceiling for Women

II. Why Does The Glass Ceiling Problem Still Exist?

III. Research Findings on The Glass Ceiling (include trends)

IV. Analysis of The Glass Ceiling Problem

V. Possible Solutions for The Glass Ceiling Problem

VI. Solution of The Glass Ceiling Implemented

VII. Why This Solution Method Is Effective?

VIII. References

REFERENCE LIST:

1. Heneman, Judge, Heneman, Staffing Organizations, 4th Edition, Irwin, 2003,

ISBN: 0-07-248259-1

2. PLEASE PROVIDE CURRENT BOOK SOURCE (No Web Source Allowed)

3. PLEASE PROVIDE CURRENT BOOK SOURCE (No Web Source Allowed)

4. PLEASE PROVIDE CURRENT BOOK SOURCE (No Web Source Allowed)

5. PLEASE PROVIDE CURRENT BOOK SOURCE (No Web Source Allowed)

SPECIAL NOTE:

• Include references from both practitioner and academic sources.

• Discuss how Wisconsin is the state in which the glass ceiling has been reported to the greatest extent.

• A minimum of two (2) citations per reference – total of a minimum of 10 citations.

• Diagrams for visual aid purposes would be helpful if possible

• Email paper in Microsoft Word file attachment to ladyarabani@yahoo.com

LITERATURE RESCOURCES TO BE USED

PRACTIONER SOURCES

• Academy of Management Executive

• Business Week

• Compensation and Benefit Review

• Fast Company

• Fortune

• Harvard Business Review

• HR Focus

• HR Magazine (Society for Human Resources Management)

• Management Review (American Management Association)

• Organizational Development Journal

• Organizational Dynamics

• SAM Advanced Management Journal

• Training Magazine

• Training & Development Journal

• Sloan Management Review (M.I.T.)

• Wall Street Journal

• Workforce

LITERATURE RESCOURCES TO BE USED (CONTINUED)

ACADEMIC SOURCES

• Academy of Management Journal

• Academy of Management Review

• Administrative Sciences Quarterly (Cornell University)

• California Management Review

• Employee Relations Law Journal

• Human Resource Management (University of Michigan)

• Human Resource Planning

• Industrial & Labor Relations Review

• Industrial Relations

• International Journal of Human Resources

• Journal of Applied Psychology

• Journal of Labor Research

• Journal of Management

• Journal of Organizational Behavior

• Journal of Occupational Psychology

• Journal of Vocational Behavior

• Labor Law Journal

• Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes

• Personnel Psychology

• Public Personnel Management

TERM PAPER GUIDELINES:

I. This section should acquaint the reader with the specific topic and the relevance to strategic staffing. Present key facts that are important in understanding the problem/issue of interest.

II. What are the key problems? Keep in mind that many of the surface “problems” are really symptoms of underlying problems. Identify the key problem(s) underlying the variety of symptoms that may exist in the situation.

Some questions to ask when formulating the definition of the problem include:

1. Have I identified the basic problem(s) or issue(s), or am I dealing with the symptoms? What is the point of the study?

2. If I have identified more than one problem/issue, are they separate or related?

III. In this section, address what is discovered in your search of the literature. This means not only reviewing theories, concepts, and studies discussed in your text, but also reviewing what other *****s/researchers may have to say about the subject of the analysis. You should talk about the concepts, ideas or insights that have the most value for helping to make sense of the term paper. What theories can you use? What *****s say something of value? And why? Which models are helpful, and why? What theories or concepts will be challenged or criticized because the findings are different?

The objective in a literature review is to “open the doors” to information that may provide you with clues or the map that will point the way to solving the particular problem. The structure of a good literature review can best be described as an upside-down wedding cake. Begin the review in very broad terms --- painting an overview of the field of interest. Then, gradually narrow your focus until you zero in on the key issue(s) of concern.

IV. This section should provide a detailed analysis of the causes of the problem(s) or issue(s) you identified in Section II. A major objective is to clearly illustrate how you are using strategic staffing course concepts (Heneman, Judge, Heneman, Staffing Organizations, 4th Edition, Irwin, 2003,), as well as from the literature review to better understand the causes of the problem(s) or issue(s).

TERM PAPER GUIDELINES (CONTINUED):

V. Offer some solutions that are appropriate for the situation and those who must implement them.

1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each alternative?

VI. This section should outline your recommended solution to the problem(s) or issue(s). The solution will be one or a combination of the alternatives listed in Section V above. It should be specific, stating what should be done, by whom, with whom, and in what sequence. In short, it will include not only what should be done but also how it should be done.

Some questions and concerns to keep in mind when writing your Solutions section are:

1. Have I indicated an awareness of the problem of implementation (the how aspect)?

2. Have I been too general?

3. What aspects of the problem remain unresolved by my solution?

4. Does my solution and implementation address the problems and causes identified in the previous sections? Does my solution take into account the pros and cons listed earlier?

5. How will I evaluate the effectiveness of the implemented action?

6. What process checks or procedures will I put in place to institutionalize the improvement?

7. Could my solution create other problems? What are the risks facing your solution? What contingency plans do you recommend?

8. Assess the realism of your proposed action plan. For example, is there adequate time, money, or other resources available for your solution? Also, does your solution place too much reliance upon other people being “reasonable” – (e.g. on what you think is “reasonable”)?

TERM PAPER GUIDELINES (CONTINUED):

VII. This section of your analysis should, using course concepts, tell why your solution and implementation will work. A major objective is to clearly show how you are applying course concepts to arrive at a workable solution and implementation to the problem or issue you have identified.

Some questions to ask when writing your Justification section are:

1. Have I applied the appropriate course material?

2. Do I support my conclusions with appropriately referenced facts,

quotes, and readings?

3. Does my justification recognize the pros and cons listed earlier?

VIII. All citations in the paper must appear in the reference list, and all references must be cited in the text. You must cite NO MORE THAN FIVE SOURCES and all web sources will be unacceptable. Choose references judiciously and cite them accurately.

VERBATIM INFORMATION FROM TEXT:

Heneman, Judge, Heneman, Staffing Organizations, 4th Edition, Irwin, 2003,

ISBN: 0-07-248259-1

THE GLASS CEILING

The “glass ceiling” is a term used to characterize strong but invisible barriers for women and minorities to promotion in the organization, particularly to the highest levels. Evidence demonstrating the existence of a glass ceiling is substantial. The composition of the U.S. labor force is approximately 54.5% male and 45.5% female, and 79% white, and 21% minority. In the Fortune 2,000 industrial and service companies, however, only 5% of the senior-level managers are women, and of that 5% virtually all are white. In the Fortune 500 companies, 97% of senior managers are white, and 95% are male.

As one goes down the hierarchy or looks across specific industries, however, a more mixed pattern of evidence of found. Across all executive, administrative, and managerial occupation, 52% are held by males (40% white and 12% minority), and 48% are held by females (36% white and 12% minority); in these occupations the percentage of white males ranges from 75% in construction to 42% in retail to 16% in health services and social services. Thus, the closer to the top of the hierarchy, the thicker the glass in the ceiling. At lower levels, the glass becomes much thinner. There are substantial variations in this pattern, though, across industries.

THE GLASS CEILING (CONTINUED):

Where glass ceiling exist, there are two important questions to ask. What are the reasons for a lack of upward mobility and representation for minorities and women at higher levels of the organization? What changes need to be made especially staffing-related ones, to help shatter the glass ceiling?

BARRIERS TO MOBILITY

The Federal Glass Ceiling Commission conducted a four-year study of glass ceiling issues, including barriers to mobility. It identified three sets of barriers.

1. Societal – assess to educational opportunities; stereotyping, prejudice, and bias related to race, gender, and ethnicity

2. Governmental – weakness in collection and dissemination of glass ceiling information; lack of vigorous and consistent monitoring and law enforcement

3. Internal – lack of outreach recruitment practices, management training, mentoring, tailor training and job assignments in revenue-producing areas, access to critical developmental assignments on committees and task forces; initial selection and placement on jobs in staff and professional jobs outside the upward pipeline to top job; biased rating and testing systems; little access to informal networks of communication; counterproductive behavior and harassment by colleagues.

An instructive illustration of these barriers, particularly the internal ones, comes from a 21-company study of men and women in sales career. The study found that 41% of women and 45% of men were eager to move into management, but the women were much less optimistic of their chances of getting promoted. Whereas the sales forces studied were 26% female, only 14% of sales managers were female. The study portrayed “a survivalist culture where career paths are more like obscure jungle trails and where most women say they experience sexual harassment.” The study also found “recruiters’ use of potentially discriminatory screening tests, managers’ negative stereotypes about women, women’s lack of access to career-boosting mentors and networks, and difficulty entertaining customers in traditional way such as fishing and golf outings.” Saleswomen were also highly dependent on their mostly male managers for job and territory assignments, which were often based on stereotypes about willingness to travel, relocate, and work long hours.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS

The Federal Glass Ceiling Commission also studied in-depth the practices found in many organizations that were successfully changing to overcome barriers to upward advancement for women and minorities. They concluded that such glass ceiling initiatives had the following characteristics in common:

• They have CEO support.

• They are part of the strategic business plan.

• They are inclusive; for instance, they do not exclude white non-Hispanic men.

• They address preconceptions and stereotypes.

• They emphasize and require accountability for promoting women and minorities.

• They track progress

• They are comprehensive

Based on their findings and deliberations, the commission issued a set of 12 recommendations for eliminating the glass ceiling. A summary of those recommendations is provided in Exhibit 6.9.

In terms of specific staffing practices that are desirable for eliminating the glass ceiling, we offer the following suggestions. Barriers to upward mobility can be addressed and removed, at least in part, through internal recruitment activities. Internal recruitment planning needs to involve the design and operation of internal markets that facilitate the identification and flows of people to jobs, through out the organization. This may very well conflict with seniority-based practices or seniority systems, both of which are likely to be well entrenched. Organizations simply have to make hard and clear choices about the role(s) that seniority will play in promotion systems.

EXHIBIT 6.9 SUMMARY OF THE FEDERAL GLASS CEILING COMMISSION RECOMMENDATION

FOR BUSINESS

• Demonstrate CEO commitment

• Include diversity in all strategic business plans; hold line managers accountable for results

• Select and promote qualified individuals; expand recruitment pools; seek candidates from noncus*****y sources, background, and experiences

• Use Affirmative Action

• Prepare minorities and women for senior positions; enhance developmental experiences; provide mentoring

• Provide training throughout the organization to improve sensitivity to gender, racial, and ethnic differences

• Adopt policies that accommodate the balance between work and family responsibilities

• Adopt workplace practices that emphasize high performance

FOR GOVERNMENT

• Be a leader in eliminating own glass ceiling

• Strengthen enforcement of antidiscrimination laws

• Improve data collection about women and minorities in the workplace and organizations

• Provide for public disclosure of diversity data, especially for senior positions

OVERCOMING BARRIERS (CONTINUED)

In terms of recruiting strategy, where to look for employee looms as a major factor in potential change. The organization must increase its scanning capabilities and horizons to identify candidates to promote throughout the organization. In particular, this requires looking across functions for candidates, rather than merely promoting within an area (from sales to sales manager to district manager, for example). Candidates should thus be recruited through both traditional and innovative career paths.

Recruitment sources have to be more open and accessible to far-ranging sets of candidates. Informal, word-of-mouth, and “good old boy” sources do not suffice. Job posting and other recruitment strategies that encourage openness of vacancy notification and candidate application will be necessary.

Recruitment changes must accompanied by many other changes. Top male managers need to fully understand that women executives differ from them in what they perceive to be the major barriers to advancement. Research suggest that women executives are more likely to see an exclusionary climate (male stereotyping and preconceptions of women, exclusion from informal networks, and inhospitable corporate culture) as a critical barrier, whereas top male managers are more likely to point to experience deficiencies (lack of significant general management and line experience, not being in the pipeline long enough) as the culprit. Hence, top management must take steps to not only create better experience-generating opportunities for women but also to develop and foster a more inclusive climate for women, such as through mentoring and providing access to informal networks. To encourage such changes and improve advancement results for women and minorities, managers must be held formally accountable for their occurrence. For example, Motorola tracks the progress of women and minorities within each senior manager’s area of responsibility and formally evaluates managers twice a year on this progress. To lead by example, the CEO has diversity, EEO, and AA goals in his bonus goals; these elements are also part of the bonus calculation for other senior managers. Since 1989, Motorola has gone from 2 to 43 women vice presidents and from 6 to 41 minority vice presidents.

Additional research has shown that HR professionals think both women and minority employee could benefit from a set of changers that would help eliminate career-advancing barriers. The top five changes are (1) CEO support of women and minorities and professional and senior roles, (2) dedicated effort to recruit and retain senior women and minority managers, (3) placement of women and minorities on boards of directors, (4) mentoring programs targeted to women and minorities, and (5) career development programs targeted toward women and minorities.

SUMMARY

In summary, solutions to the glass ceiling problem require myriad points of attack. First, women and minorities must have visibility and support at top levels – from the board of directors, the CEO, and senior management. That support must include actions to eliminate prejudice and stereotypes. Second, women and minorities must be provided the job opportunities and assignments that will allow them to develop the depth and breadth of KSAOs needed for ascension to, and success in, top positions. These developmental experiences include assignment in multiple functions, management of diverse businesses, line management experience with direct profit-loss and bottom-line accountability, diverse geographical assignments, and international experience. Naturally, the relative importance of these experiences will vary according to type and size of the organization. Third, the organization must provide continual support for women and minorities to help ensure positive person/job matches. Included here are mentoring, training, and flexible work hours systems. Fourth, the organization must gear ups its internal recruitment to aggressively and openly track and recruit women and minority candidates for advancement. Finally, the organization must develop and use valid methods of assessing the qualifications of women and minority candidates. *****

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