Essay on "Prebiotic Potential of Chitosans"

Essay 25 pages (6463 words) Sources: 1+

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Prebiotic Potential of Chitosans

Prebiotic Potential Of Chitosan

"The favourable properties like biocompatibility, biodegradability, pH sensitiveness, mucoadhesiveness, etc.

has enabled these polymers to become the choice of the pharmacologists as oral delivery matrices for proteins"

(George & Abraham, 2006, Abstract section).).

In the study, "Polyionic hydrocolloids for the intestinal delivery of protein drugs: Alginate and chitosan- a review," M. George and T.E. Abraham (2006) discuss the contemporary challenge in the design of oral delivery of peptide or protein drugs. Consequently, as the majority of "the synthetic polymers are immunogenic and the incorporation of proteins in to these polymers require harsh environment which may denature and inactivate the desired protein" George and Abraham (2006, Abstract), pH sensitive hydrogels such as alginate and chitosan have begun to attract increasing attention. Due to its hydrophilic nature and simple solubility in acidic medium, chitosan possesses only limited ability to control the release of encapsulated compound. Simple covalent modifications of the polymer, albeit, may change its physicochemical properties and, in turn, make it suitable for the peroral drug delivery purpose. During this qualitative case study, which investigates the prebiotic potential of chitosan, the researcher examines the following components:

1. Prebiotics

2. Chitosan

3. prebiotic potential of chitosan

The primary research question this study addresses queries: What is the prebiotoc potential of chitosan? The two research sub-questions contributing support to answer the primary research question include?

1. How chitosans are currently utilized?

2. What concerns contribute to challenges for utilizing chitisans in prebiotics?

The hypothesis for this study asserts: When current research resolves current challenges regarding the factors hindering the potential of prebiotics in chitisans, then the efficiency of prebiotics will increase.

Prebiotics

Katherine Zeratsky, R.D., L.D. (2009), the Mayo Clinic, asserts in the journal article,

"Prebiotics: What are they?" that prebiotics constitute nondigestible nutrients certain beneficial bacteria that naturally live in one's intestines use as an energy source. "Prebiotics are sometimes known as fermentable fiber" (Zeratsky, ¶ 1). In contrast, probiotics, consist of the beneficial, or friendly, bacteria themselves. As a food source for probiotics, prebiotics give the probiotic bacteria the opportunity to exert their influence. These friendly bacteria possess a number of health benefits, including digesting to boosting one's immunity. Stress, certain medical conditions, medications, a poor diet, and other factors, however; may decrease the number of healthy bacteria. Eating a diet that includes prebiotics may help restore the friendly bacteria.

Zeratsky (2009) asserts that currently, the role of prebiotics in regard to the treatment of disease proves controversial, which necessitates the need for further studies to determine their potential usefulness. Figure 1 depicts certain conditions that preliminary evidence proposes that prebiotics may have a role in:

Figure 1: Conditions Prebiotics May Help Alleviate (adapted from Zeratsky, 2009, ¶ 3).

Zeratsky (2009) explains that prebiotics occur naturally in various foods, particularly in high-fiber foods, including certain fruits, grains and vegetables. The primary food sources of prebiotics include: "Artichokes, Bananas, Barley, Berries, Chicory, Dairy products, Flax, Garlic Greens, such as dandelion greens, chard and kale, Honey, Leeks, Legumes, Onions and Wheat and whole grains, such as oatmeal" (Zeratsky, ¶ 4). Manufacturers also add prebiotics to numerous dietary supplements, as well as to some processed foods, including drink mixes and meal-replacement bars, and yogurt. Not all products with naturally-occurring prebiotics, however, are labeled as such. Prebiotic supplements may be taken as capsules or tablets that one swallows or chews or may be sprinkled on one's food, and/or stirred into beverages.

No specific guidelines exist regarding how many grams of prebiotics one needs to consume. Some studies suggest that one should consume from 3 to 8 grams a day to obtain the full benefits of prebiotics, however, in some instances, use of prebiotics may stimulate intestinal gas. Zeratsky (2009) recommends that one, checks with his/her doctor before taking any dietary or herbal supplements to ensure they will be safe for his/her situation.

The article, "Prebiotics: A Consumer Guide for Making Smart Choices," (N.D.) asserts that the three criteria are currently required for a prebiotic effect:

Resistance of the prebiotic to degradation by stomach acid, mammalian enzymes or hydrolysis;

Fermentation (breakdown, metabolism) of the prebiotic by intestinal microbes; and Selective stimulation of the growth and/or activity of positive microorganisms in the gut. ( Prebiotics: A Consumer…, N.d., ¶ 2).

Good prebiotics remain stable under heat and also when dried. They may be stored at room temperature for months. "A daily dose of 5-8g/d fructooligosaccharides (FOS) or galactooligosaccharides (GOS) has a prebiotic effect in adults. & #8230;Both fibre and prebiotics are typically non-digestible carbohydrates, and both are typically fermented by gut bacteria" Prebiotics: A Consumer…, N.d., ¶ ¶ 3 & 6). A prebiotic differs from fibre, however, only beneficial members of the gut microbial community selectively use it in the gut. Although a number of manufacturers refer to prebiotics as fibre, as fibre constitutes a more familiar term for consumers, prebiotics are historically more closely linked to the probiotic concept than to the fibre one.

Chitosan

Becca Goodyear (2009), affiliate of Vanderbilt University, defines chitosan in the article, "Chitosan." Chitosan, "a modified carbohydrate polymer derived from the chitin component of the shells of crustacean, such as crab, shrimp, and cuttlefish & #8230;is deproteinized, demineralized and de-acetylated. & #8230;Chitosan is composed of a NH4+ (ammonium) group attached to a polyglucosamine chain" (Goodyear, 2009, p. 1). Because chitosan is a dietary fiber, the digestive enzymes of a person cannot digest it.

Chitin, a primary by-product of the crabbing and shrimp canning industry also depicts the main source of surface pollution in coastal areas. Since the 1990s, studies on chitin and chitosan have expanded to seek value-added uses of these polysaccharides that reveal exceptional biological properties. Figure 2 depicts these particular properties.

Figure 2: Excellent Biological Properties of Polysaccharides (adapted from Argin, 2007, p. 9).

Chitin, Argin (2007) explains, constitutes the second most prevalent natural polysaccharide; present in crustacea, insects and yeasts. Alkaline deacetylation of chitin produces chitosan, poly-?-(1-4)-D-glucosamine, the only natural cationic polysaccharide. Chitin and chitosan demonstrate a molecular weight of ranges "between several hundred thousands to 1 million Dalton" (Argin, 2007, p. 9). As the degree of acetylation (DA) affects chitosan's biodegradation capability, solubility, gelling and its reactivity, DA constitutes a significant property of chitosan molecules. "The unique properties of chitosan arise from its amino groups that carry positive charges at pH values below 6.5, enabling it to bind to negatively charged materials such as enzymes, cells, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, hair and skin" (Argin, 2007, p. 9). Chitosan, a linear polysaccharide, possess both reactive amino groups and hydroxyl groups that may be utilized to modify its physical and solution properties

Chitin and chitosan, currently being extensively utilized in the pharmaceutical industry, may be found in artificial skin, cosmetics, contact lenses and wound dressing. They are also routinely used in manufacturing animal feed, chromatography, dietary supplements, paper, photography components, solid state batteries, and for waste water treatment.

Chitosan, Argin (2007) further explains is not soluble at alkaline and neutral pH, however, it is soluble in inorganic and organic acids, "such as hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid and glutamic acid. Water soluble chitosan can be formed when hydrogen-bond formation is prevented by partial re-acetylation of chitosan molecules by several means" (Argin, 2007, p. 10). In addition, significant research has been invested to investigate the use of chitosan as a drug delivery vehicle, particularly for the treatment of ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, and other colon diseases. Research also includes the exploration of chitosan as a dietary supplement to lower cholesterol and to help control weight. Generally, chitosan for human oral administration is accepted as safe and approved for food use in Italy, Norway, and Japan. "In the U.S., chitosan…[has not yet been] approved as a food additive by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)" (Argin, 2007, p. 10). In 1985, however, the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) approved chitosan for its use in animal feed; provided the level does not exceed 0.1% of the feed. Figure 3 depicts the molecular structure of chitosan; while Figure 3 portrays the chemical structure of chitosan.

Figure 3: Molecular Structure of Chitosan (Baynes-Clarke & Taylor, 2001, Molecular Structure section…).

Figure 4: Chemical Structure of Chitosan (Baynes-Clarke & Taylor, 2001, Molecular Structure section…).

Chitin-Chitosan in Clinical Practice

In the publication, "Chitin-Chitosan: The power of crab shell," Stephen Levine, (2007), Biochemist from UC Berkeley, reports that Dr. Akira Matsunaga (2007), the first doctor in Japan to use chitin-chitosan in clinical practice, explains the differences in processing chitin and chitosan:

Chitin-chitosan (CC) is a mixture of chitin and chitosan. The chitin, the component of the crab shell, becomes chitosan upon enzymatic treatment. Chitin may be "the primordial form" of some of the first living things on earth, existing much earlier than dinosaurs. In order to extract only the chitin from crab shell, a chemical process is used consisting of 5% hydrochloric acid, which removes the calcium, and 5% sodium hydroxide, which dissolves the protein. If the chitin is deacetylated (by treating it with 45%… READ MORE

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