Term Paper on "Process Through Which Political Unification of Italy and Germany Was Achieved"

Term Paper 8 pages (2686 words) Sources: 1+

[EXCERPT] . . . .

political unification of Italy and Germany was achieved

Italy

Mazzini. The congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was dominated by conservative diplomats which tried to ensure the supremacy of the great European powers for long periods of time. The concept of equilibrium of powers left little space for maneuver for small states or national unity movement. In Italy, for instance, while Piedmont was reinforcing its position, Mazzini's democratic and republican movement was facing serious difficulties. An insurrection organized in February 1853 in Milan against the Austrians had failed. The democratic movement was also discredited by the execution at Belfore of the leaders of the Mantua conspiracy, as well as the unsuccessful insurrections at Cadore and Lunigiana. Even its most dedicated adherents were discouraged. Mazzini suffered an even harder blow when it was discovered that he had previously supported an expedition to the southern mainland (Sapri, June-July 1857). The purpose of this expedition was to incite the population to insurrection. The result was the death of 300 members, including the Neapolitan republican and socialist Carlo Pisacane. The consequence of these failed actions was the division between the democrats, who were rendered unable to continue their revolutionary activities.

Their lack of vision was completed by the repressive measures taken by Austria in Lombardy-Venetia, the refusal of the pope Pius IX to grant reforms in Rome (since the pope was under the influence of Giacomo Cardinal Antonelli, known for his reactionary beliefs) and the reaction of the rulers from Napes and Tuscany. Although reforms were badly needed, the only place were they seemed possible was Piedmont.

2. Cavour the year 1857 was marked by the formation of the Italian National Society. Renowned for its monarchistic-unionist approach, the Society owed its existence to Camillo Benso di Cavour, minister since October 1850. It was lead by Manin as president and by Garibaldi as vice president, which assured it a very wide appeal, wider in any case than the one that would have been obtained if the moderates had run it. Cavour had a different conception about solving the Italian national problem. He believed that international negotiations were preferable to revolutions. However, he did not resort to the elimination of conspiratorial movements. Cavour was responsible for holding a secret conference at Plombieres, in France, in the summer of 1858, which gave him the opportunity to speak with Louis Napoleon-Bonaparte, also known as Emperor Napoleon III, about the French military intervention in Italy, should Austria choose to attack Piedmot. Cavour was trying to eliminate all Austrian imperial troops from the Italian peninsula, for which he was willing to concede Savoy and Nice to France.

Ironically, Napoleon III blamed Mazzini and his followers for a failed attempt on his life in Paris on January the 14th, 1859, made by the anarchist Felice Orsini. Despite that fact, the alliance between France and Piedmont was sealed the same month. Having the French emperor's approval, the king Victor Emanuel II made a speech in which he declared himself prepared to hear "the cry of woe" against the Austrian oppression, which was omnipresent in Italy.

During this period, the leaders of the Austrian military and its sympathizers at the imperial court pleaded for war on Piedmont. Francis Joseph addressed an unacceptable ultimatum to Piedmont wherein the demobilization of all its troops was requested. As the ultimatum was rejected, Austria decided to declare war in a few days time. Fulfilling Cavour's hopes and demands, France intervened in favor of Piedmont, according to the terms of the Alliance.

The new allies won bloody battles at Magenta, Solferino and San Martino, all in 1859. Since the Austrian army was in bad shape and it had received orders to retreat, Napoleon III thought it would be better to sign an armistice with the Austrian empire, which was indeed concluded at Villafranca. There were two reasons which had prompted this new solution: the first was that French public opinion was beginning to be very sensitive about the loss of lives in the Italian campaign, which was not even on French soil or for the immediate protection of France's interests.

The second reason was the imminent modification of the structure of Italian society. Leopold II of Tuscany had been the victim of a coup, at the end of April 1859. The duchy was now run by moderate political leaders such as Baron Bettino Ricasoli, who had already formed a provisional government. Rebellions spread all over the peninsula. Parma, Modena and the Papal Legations were affected. The only places were insurgents were defeated by governmental troops were Marche and Umbria. The people wished for unification with Piedmont, a desire which materialized in the plebiscites organized across the Italian states, a fact that triggered France's opposition.

The terms agreed by Napoleon the III at Villafranca included the cession of Lombardy from Austria, later passed to Piedmont. The legitimate rulers of Tuscany and Modena were supposed to be reinstated, in order for them to participate in the realization of an Italian Confederation. Although these events meant Cavour's defeat and resignation, it turned out that England opposed the return of the rulers of Tuscany and Modena, and Napoleon III accepted this new solution. Therefore, the consequence was Cavour's return to office at the beginning of 1860. The plebiscites organized in the duchies and the Papal Legations confirmed the popular desire for unification with Piedmont. The reasons behind the support of the great European powers for the Piedmontese monarchy were diverse: the need for a weaker Austria, the existence of a strong Italian state that would better suit England's interests and the fear for a democratic revolution.

3. Garibaldi Although the results were truly great, the democratic movement continued its activities in order to obtain a full unification. Significant parts of the Italian peninsula still depended on foreign sovereigns. Sicilian democrats assisted Garibaldi and his expeditionary force (the Thousand) in an attempt to free southern Italy from the rule of the Bourbons. Garibaldi and his men landed at Marsala in May 11, 1860 and, although insufficiently armed and equipped, they managed to occupy the entire Sicilian island in less than three months.

The Sicilian peasants, although happy to receive Garibaldi's troops, quickly changed their attitudes, since Garibaldi was not to eager to break the old estates and to distribute the land to the peasants. During this time, the king of the Two Sicilies, Francis II granted a constitution and promised amnesty to Sicilian rebels. Garibaldi, in order to avoid further conflicts, crossed the straight of Messina and made his entrance into Naples in September 1860. The Bourbon army was finally defeated at Volturno, a fact that made Garibaldi's prestige rise considerably. Cavour responded by taking initiative once again. He occupied Umbria and the Marche and organized an encounter between Garibaldi and King Victor Emanuel II, the latter being greeted by the former as the King of Italy. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed on the 17th of March 1861 by a Parliament temporarily assembled in Turin. Although Cavour had mentioned the fact that Rome should become the capital of the new state, his death impeded further actions in this direction.

The new country was fragmented from multiple points-of-view: the north and south were economically imbalanced, the political elite was not able to arrive to any consensus, corruption and previous poorly conducted economic reform took their toll in the new born kingdom. Still, public opinion remained favourable towards the completion of territorial reunification. The democrats saw an opportunity to solve once and for all the Roman problem. The expedition organized by Garibaldi failed and the leader was wounded and arrested, but public outrage managed to take down the newly installed Ratazzi government. The same thing happened to his successor, Marco Minghetti, which had promised the French emperor to move the capital of the Italian kingdom to Florence instead of Rome.

Two years later, taking advantage of Austria's war with Prussia, which made it difficult to supervise the Austrian southern border, the Italian government attacked Austrian controlled Venetia and failed miserably. The Treaty of Vienna in October 1866 made possible, with the intervention of Napoleon III, to attribute Venetia to Italy. Garibaldi organized an expedition on Rome once again, but the outcome was similar. He was defeated and condemned to house arrest. Surprisingly, the Lanza-Sella center-right cabinet was the one to solve the Roman problem. The pope was deprived of French military protection as Napoleon III was defeated and forced to abdicate. Italian troops entered Rome in September 1870. The pope Pius IX declared himself a prisoner, a position still maintained by his successors for almost 60 years. However, despite minor setbacks, the Italian unity was now complete.

Germany

1. The 1848-1849 Failure the late 1840s were extremely difficult years for the entire European Continent. The hard times also affected the German Confederation, which erupted into revolution. An economic depression was the core of urban unemployment and rising poverty. Agricultural disasters completed the picture. The result was a series of open revolts against the governments… READ MORE

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