Term Paper on "Philosophers Ethos"

Term Paper 5 pages (1533 words) Sources: 1+

[EXCERPT] . . . .

philosophers' ethos

Thomas Hobbes's opinion in regard to psychological egoism was that the concept had been true, with all people being interested solely in their own well-being, regardless of the circumstances. The British philosopher was certain that an individual cannot possibly be interested in doing good deeds if he or she does not believe that their seemingly benevolent actions would also benefit them. Authorities are apparently responsible for preventing people from behaving in accordance to their own interests. With no one to be in charge of society, individuals would only be interested in behaving selfishly, with no regard to other people. From Hobbes' perspective, altruism does not exist, as it is only an attempt that people make with the purpose of covering their egocentricity (Hobbes, 104).

Through the state of nature concept, Hobbes related to how society would be if it were not for the government. In a Hobbesian character, this theory is pessimistic, as it states that the human community would be dominated by poverty, conflicts, and evilness, given that a "bellum omnium contra omnes ("the war of all against all")" (Hobbes, vii) would emerge from the process.

Although morality is generally perceived as being something related to altruism and compassionate behavior, Hobbes claims that it is actually made possible because of self-interest. Society is based on reciprocity, with morality guiding people in doing to others only what they would accept others to do to them. Even though the state of nature initially influenced people in the choices they made, they apparently accepted reform through morality, which guaranteed that they could be safe, even though they were no longer able to do particular acts because of their immoral nature of those respective performances. Even with that, most people would be reluctant to accept to behave morally if it were not for a greater force that forced them to do so (Hobbes 481).

David Hume believed that reason was a mere byproduct of sentiments, with people acting on account of their sentiments instead of doing so based on a previously determined motivation. The concept of morality is largely influenced by sentiments, given that people's behavior being governed by their personal opinions. Thus, morality can be understood differently by two individuals, depending on the convictions each of them has. The general public cannot act in conformity to a standard reason because it involves a series of individuals that are unlikely to have the exact same beliefs (Hume's Moral Philosophy).

Through utility, David Hume wanted people to realize that they should act in accordance to a standard principle of justice, one that would assist individuals in putting their convictions together and promoting common values. Utility is basically a value that proves that a particular something is useful and thus brings pleasure, regardless of the nature of this respective enjoyment. In all probability, Hume associated utility to sentiments, with the former determining something's usefulness (Hume: Moral Theory).

According to Hume, the contemporary society is the result of people reaching a common agreement in regard to justice. As a consequence of wanting society to have utility, the masses contributed to making justice a general concept, which could be applied in almost any environment, by all people. Justice has been made possible because of people's desire to protect themselves and their property from others, considering that the world would be dominated by chaos if it were not for justice to determine each individual's place in society. Justice would be of no use if everything would be perfect, but because the human community is characterized by imperfection, it only seems natural for people to want justice to be one of the most important elements in their lives (Hume, 21).

Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative referred to how if a particular act was justified by its planning, it is required for individuals to perform the respective act. In Kant's opinion, morality could have been given a general form, one that would bring together all convictions relating to good will. A hypothetical imperative can stand as motivation for an act, but people only perform this act because they expect a certain outcome, even with the fact that they are not sure regarding the nature of the consequence. A categorical imperative stands as motivation for a certain act even before the respective act is being performed. In addition to this, a categorical imperative puts across absolute necessity, given that one cannot act in accordance to their own convictions when coming across it (Kant's Moral Philosophy).

Acting out of a sense of duty is, in Kant's opinion, related to being interested primarily in moral values. People who act out of a sense of duty are inclined to ignore their personal convictions in favor of behaving morally. Individuals behaving this way highly respect moral values and are reluctant to govern themselves in accordance to other factors. People basically believe that moral principles are extremely valuable in performing a particular act, since it is likely for them to fail in doing the respective act if they ignore morality. In contrast, people who act in conformity to duty are less interested in respecting morality than they are in behaving in accordance to their own sentiments. When moral values come in conflict with personal convictions, people are more likely to disregard morality. It is as if people carefully examine moral values previous to acting in accordance with them (Kant's Moral Philosophy).

When regarding moral philosophy, John Stuart Mill's opinion regarding utility was that every act was effective as long as it brought happiness whereas every act was ineffective as long as it did not do so. Mill's convictions generated a more modern form of right and wrong, clearly defining utility as something that should be measured in regard to the rightness it brings. In Mill's contemporary society, utility could be associated to reform, as the philosopher observed how his community's restructuring brought significant improvements. Mill virtually understood utility as being something that brought happiness.

Mill identified utility as being something individuals could clearly distinguish, with it being more than enough for some to justify their behavior, as they would act only when they perceived the effect of their action as being useful. Mill believed that utility was closely related to morality, considering that the latter can also stand as motivation for a particular act, with presumably individuals being able to discern between right and wrong and thus identify the right choice (John Stuart Mill).

Happiness can be triggered by higher pleasure or by lower pleasure, as Mill describes. The former is represented through an occurrence when an individual chooses it because he or she is well aware regarding the happiness that it brings. Most people who are acquainted with both the higher pleasure and the lower pleasure are likely to prefer the former. Lower pleasure is characterized through the fact that it can be in accordance with morality and even though the general public is aware of its obvious disadvantage in comparison to higher pleasure, it can be inclined to prefer it, regardless of the disappointment that such an act can bring (John Stuart Mill).

Albert Camus generally perceived life as being absurd because people struggle to complete a series of missions throughout their lives only with the purpose of reaching the same end, over and over again. Basically every value humanity has produced across time is useless when confronted with the absurdity of life. Justice and reason are two concepts that are absurd themselves, taking into account that they have to function in accordance to humans, who already know how their lives will end. Camus ridicules people because they go through great efforts with the purpose of achieving happiness as if they did not know that they will eventually die.

Camus' essay regarding Sisyphus perfectly exemplifies how the philosopher himself was fond of the… READ MORE

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