Term Paper on "Pharmacologic Treatment of Fear and Anxiety in the Canine"

Term Paper 15 pages (4199 words) Sources: 1+

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Pharmacologic Treatment of Fear and Anxiety in the Canine

Anyone who has ever owned a dog that was scared of certain events, objects or people can readily testify to how profound the fear can be in various breeds of canines. In fact, more than half of Americans own dogs today, and the number continues to increase. The symptoms of such fear and anxiety can range the entire spectrum from mild to life-threatening conditions, and pet owners, military and police dog handlers, veterinarians and others concerned about the welfare of their animals will need all of the help they can get when confronted with these types of conditions in their household dogs and other canines. To this end, this paper provides an overview of the problem including causes and symptoms of fear and anxiety in canines, followed by a critical analysis of the current and peer-reviewed literature concerning the pharmacologic treatment of these disorders today. A summary of the research and salient findings are provided in the conclusion.

Review and Discussion

Background and Overview.

Mankind has always wanted to communicate with animals, and to some extent, this communication is possible with many species such as the great apes, dolphins and common households dogs and cats. Unfortunately, this level of communication does not typically include the ability to discern specific psychological conditions that are found among humans but may not have an exact counterpart in the rest of the animal kingdom. In this regard, Plutchik (2001) reports that, "By now we have all heard authors of best-selling books describe jealousy, love, anxiety and fear in dogs, cats, chimpanzees, baboons, elephants and lions. The popular appeal of such explanations may lie in their ability to touch a deep-seated sense of the connectedness of all living things" (p. 344). While a number of clinicians have cautioned that there are some serious implications involved in such anthropomorphism, the growing body of scientific evidence suggests that this attitude is an obsolete prejudice. In fact, according Donald Griffin, one of the founders of the field of animal cognition and a zoologist at Rockefeller University, the "charge of anthropomorphism is a conceited claim that only our species is capable of even the simplest conscious thinking. But there is danger in oversimplifying: A sophisticated understanding is needed to inform clinical practice" (cited in Plutchik, 2001, p. 344).

From a clinical perspective, Sher and Trull (1996) note that there are a number of naturally occurring behavior disorders that are typically treated in veterinary practices that may have relevance to a number of human conditions; these conditions include, but are not limited to, stereotypic disorders (e.g. excessive grooming), aggression, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, hyperactivity, and sleep disorders. These authors add that researchers generally use a wide variety of experimental manipulations to induce specific signs and symptoms or more complex syndromes in animals that have some similarity to human psychopathologic phenomena with the majority of these behavior disorders in animals (Sher & Trull, 1996). Despite these constraints, though, researchers continue to use animal models to study the mechanisms that are involved in several psychiatric disorders and to investigate the relationship between conditions such as alcoholism and co-occurring disorders that have shed some insight into the etiology of these processes in the canine as well as humans (Hitzemann, 2000). An old adage advises that the dog is "man's best friend," and there does in fact appear to be a special bond that exists between many dogs (Swabe, 1999). According to this author, "Archaeological findings suggest that Canis familiaris was probably the first animal species to undergo domestication" (Swabe, 1999, p. 33). In fact, the special relationship between mankind and canines that has historically existed has resulted in the species that exists today (Swabe, 1999). Indeed, a growing body of medical evidence indicates that dogs can reduce stress among humans and it is little wonder, then, that many dog owners hold their pets in high esteem (Jalongo, 2005), some to the extent that they have sought to have their dogs cloned (Fiester, 2005). Furthermore, the number of people who own dogs in the United States today is greater than ever and continues to increase (Becker, Chew, Correa, Hoepner, Jusino, Kinney, Miller & Perzanowski, 2003; Boone & Tyler, 2001). According to a survey by the Pet Food Institute, more than 50% of all households in the United States have some kind of pet, and the number is rising: "By far the most popular pets are dogs and cats. The number of dogs owned by Americans increased 13% between 1982 and 1990" (Williams, 1991, p. 24). The importance of identifying typical symptoms and sources of fear and anxiety in canines, then, has assumed a new level of importance today for the average dog owner, and these issues are discussed further below.

Causes and Symptoms of Fear and Anxiety in Canines.

Although researchers continue to refine their understanding of fear and anxiety in canines, much has been learned about how these physiological and psychological processes operate in them. For example, researchers recognize that all types of organisms must determine, based on limited information, whether there is adequate food, potential mates or danger in their environment; depending on the type of prediction made about these issues, the organism then makes a decision to escape, to attack, to eat or to mate (Plutchik, 2001. In this regard, Singer (1990) cites numerous neurologists, animal behaviorists, and "three separate expert government committees on matters related to animals" to support the claim that animals perceive pain, as well as fear, anxiety, and stress.

According to Ridley (1999), dogs that are household pets are at particular risk of developing various fears and anxieties as the result of their owners' negative behaviors and moods. "Black moods and tantrums from humans are frightening and often result in pets becoming noisy and destructive," he advises. "They develop canine anxiety and are unable to cope with the mayhem that is erupting around them. In extreme cases, domestic disruption can cause confusion and terror which trigger symptoms in a dog that are exactly the same as the ones they will experience when they are about to die" (p. 38). Furthermore, empirical observations from this author confirm that dogs will in some cases mimic the same types of behaviors found in the wild that are indicative of fears and anxieties, even to the extreme of losing the will to live (or at least continue to live with the same owners). In this regard, Ridley reports that, "I have seen dogs go to the bottom of the garden, or stay close to walls - their heads and tails hanging low - which normally is an instinctive reaction to impending death. In the wild dogs leave their packs and go away to die" (p. 38).

Finally, while cats are also highly sensitive to these types of human behaviors, cats tend to cope with these issues as individuals but dogs have an intuitive and overpowering sense of their pack instinct: "A dog's pack is the family unit. A fracas among humans, or one member leaving will disturb the animal. Remember, our pets are unable to understand what is going on" (Ridley, 1999, p. 39). When dogs suddenly turn destructive and aggressive, the outcomes can be distressing and even dangerous for the owners. For instance, citing the case of a Doberman named Rex that turned against its mistress after her husband left home, Ridley reports that the woman was no longer able to control the large dog within a week Rex bit her so badly she required stitches in her arm and leg. The author's conclusion: "Rex regarded the woman's husband as the leader of the pack and was thrown into confusion when he left. I persuaded the lady to let Rex live with her estranged husband and Rex immediately returned to his immaculate behaviour" (Ridley, 1999, p. 39).

Likewise, another divorcing couple owned a pair of Jack Russell terriers and decided to keep one dog each; however, both dogs immediately became uncontrollable. According to Ridley's assessment, "These dogs had been inseparable for three years and couldn't bear to be parted. The couple agreed to re-unite them and the problems ceased" (Ridley, 1999, p. 39). Finally, the author cites the case of Max, a small Maltese who had been overindulged by his mistress (even allowing him to sleep on her bed). "When her lover moved in to the bedroom, Max became vicious and was threatening the relationship. Sometimes arguments over a pet can lead to divorce. I advised this man to make friends with Max and gently ease him out of the bedroom. He did his best, but sadly it came too late to save the relationship. The lady had raised Max's status to the point where he was the boss" (Ridley, 1999, p. 39).

In this regard, learned helplessness and the related phenotypes of behavioral despair and chronic unpredictable stress have been used by researchers to model some aspects of depression. For instance, Martin Seligman originally developed the learned helplessness… READ MORE

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