Literature Review on "What the Literature Says Regarding the Management of Volunteers"

Literature Review 20 pages (6316 words) Sources: 20

[EXCERPT] . . . .

They find that the most effective management strategy in any given context or situation is one in which a proper "spirit" is fostered among all members of the organization, in such a way that each member, whether leader, subordinate or volunteer, has the same agenda, same outlook, and same drive to achieve the same goals as those within the organization -- in other words, they all share the same "spirit of mission." Establishing this "spirit" in volunteers is one of the most effective ways that management can build the volunteer ranks within the organization, according to Samaan and Verneuil (2009). The "spirit of mission" (Samaan, Verneuil, 2009, p. 421), which may be understood as the ability to maintain consistent adherence to an organization/agency's mission statement, is an essential element of building the manager-volunteer relationship because it provides the focal point for both groups and posits them within the same team, giving the overall schema a legitimate goal for which to strive. Yet, maintenance of that mission depends on more than the organizational system that supports it. Just as belief and action affect and are affected by a "spirit of mission," organizations and agencies affect and are affected by a larger political, economical and social setting. Thus, it is essential that organizations foster this "spirit" so as to attract the volunteers that they are likely to need in the nonprofit sector. The study by Samaan and Verneuil (2009) is helpful in illustrating a rational and organizationally sound model of uniting management and volunteers.

Management by Distance: Latest Trends and Models

Nebus and Chai (2014) discuss in their ontological analysis of distance management models the importance of emphasizing "psychic distance" rather than physical "distance," which they assert has a more negative connotation when it comes to management by distance (p. 8). Their study focuses on the relevance of perception within new distance management models as well as understanding and awareness, which can be combined to articulate a new "multidimensional psychic distance construct" that "eliminates the constraint that distance is only associated with negative outcomes" (Nebus, Chai, 2014, p. 8). In short, eliminating the negativity associated with distance management is located not in the challenge of eliminating distance (via technology links) but in re-conceptualizing the psychic link between management and workers. Essentially, the model that Nebus and Chair propose is based on the "spirit of mission" identified by Samaan and Verneuil (2009), re-interpreted in a global scheme in which management by distance is constructed using this same spirit-oriented foundation.

Hutzschenreuter, Kleindienst, and Lange (2014) also discuss the psychic model/trend in management by distance as one that is effective in overcoming the "impediment" of management by distance (p. 38). Their study focuses on the different psychic stimuli that can be utilized by management in order to effect desired outcomes in workers. Their model stipulates that "complexity" only arises when the "nature of distance" is thought of primarily in physical terms. Physical distance, in other words, can be overcome by bridging the cultural distances that are concomitant with the physical or geographical/spatial distances. Psychic distance stimuli (PDS) can be used as a distance-eliminating model for managers by redressing the complexities normally associated with distance-management through cultural/psychic stimuli which increase the sense of connection in spite of distance and orient both managers and workers along the same mission lines.

Schomaker and Zaheer (2014) develop a model of distance management based on "the effects of language on knowledge transfer" (p. 55). Again, they employ same trend as Hutzschenreuter, Kleindienst, and Lange (2014) and Nebus and Chai (2014) by not focusing on the physical "distance" between management and workers but rather on the "commonalities" of the two groups. Specifically, Schomaker and Zaheer (2014) emphasize the aspect of language and linguistic similarities as a model for developing better management by distance. At the foundation of the model is found the basics of language -- grammar -- which serves as a framework. Absent from the model is any focus on interpretative meaning of words, which takes away from the overall aim. The model proposed is meant to supply management with a more objective take on language as a facilitator rather than as a separator (which is what it would be if a more subjective/interpretive take were supplied). The researchers test their model by way of conducting a survey among international operations managers. What the researchers find is similar to the psychic paradox, which is that language commonalities reveal and help to foster positive relationships but they also reveal a gap in "knowledge understanding" (a perceived negative). However, the gap is likely to be filled by the appreciation derived from the attempt to bridge the distance by means of establishing common ground.

Clearly the trend in management by distance models is showing a need to eliminate the concept of "distance" from the discourse of management using various means, whether a psychic reinterpretation of distance or language or spirit of mission as a binding mechanism to elevate groups out of the distance paradigm to a more transcendent level of interaction. These models are fundamentally theoretical in the abstract sense and supported by a psycho-social understanding of human interaction. Other models, however, take a more economical approach to the problem of management by distance and show how the issue is being addressed in other ways.

There is, for instance, the study by Gooris and Peeters (2014) that focuses on the Transaction Cost Economics approach in order to better understand the "comparative costs of the hierarchical and contractual models" and how they play a role in defining "dimensions of distance" (p. 73). The comparative models reveal that managers respond to different "uncertainties" and challenges in different ways, depending on whether they are internal problems or external problems. Internal problems are typically met by "leveraging the internal controls" of the organization, albeit from a distance; whereas external problems are typically met by pulling back from commitments made abroad and appealing to third parties for assistance in overcoming the obstacle (Gooris, Peeters, 2014, p. 73). The researchers also indicated that temporal distance is more impactful in the manager-worker relationship than spatial distance. This study is helpful because it highlights the various levers that are open to distance managers in terms of confronting challenges and staying on pace. It puts forward a more practical model of management rather than the theoretical models proposed by the preceding researchers.

Yildiz (2014) focuses on the trend of assumptions made relating to "the cultural distance construct" that persists in general among distance management models (p. 25). The study finds that these assumptions can lead to deceptive perceptions which do not reflect the actual circumstances or the reality of the conditions within the manager-worker relationship. Yildiz emphasizes the need for the usage of status theory in terms of devising new models of management by distance so as to better circumvent the false assumptions that give way to misleading narratives. Yildiz (2014) also suggests that simply by utilizing status theory, "inconsistent empirical results" can be reconciled and models that are "under-specified" can be avoided in future research (p. 25).

Similarly, Lu and Gao (2015) focus on the trend of disregarding "traditional management" modes and utilizing new strategies for bettering distance management (p. 1970). Their study emphasizes the need to utilize technology and network communications within the distance-eliminating environment of the Internet. Specifically, the researchers devise a multimedia-based model of interaction that is designed to lift groups out of their immediate surroundings to another plane of interaction and therefore of management. This model, the researchers suggest, "has incomparable advantages compared to traditional management modes" because it employs tools that have never before been available to distance managers and that, when utilized, can eliminate the main challenge in distance management -- which is, essentially, the problem of distance (Lu, Gao, 2015, p. 1970).

The theme of management by distance research today, therefore, is found in eliminating the concept of "distance" from distance management models. Harzing and Pudelko (2015) also focus on this trend in their qualitative analysis of conceptual distance models and entry mode choice, "one of the most researched fields in international business strategy." Their findings suggest that entry mode choice has little to do with actual distance rather than with limited sampling. What they advise is for researchers to focus on contextualization instead of the concept of distance, which acts as a divider rather than a bridge.

This promoted trend is similar to that of Shomaker and Zaheer (2014) and shows that management by distance models are being reconceptualized away from distance-shaping paradigms towards an altogether new perspective which focuses on reinterpreting the relationship by disregarding distance as a concept whatsoever. The result in this model of delegitimizing distance is that managers are able to focus more on the relationship rather than on "negatives" or problems associated with distance. The use of technology in overcoming practical communication problems faced by previous generations has also come a long way in eliminating distance from the… READ MORE

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