Term Paper on "Native American Language"

Term Paper 10 pages (3063 words) Sources: 1+ Style: APA

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Native American Words in American English

Native American Influence on American English

American society evolved through the interactions of many different cultures and peoples who came to America to make a new life. Our language today is the result of blending that occurred as these immigrants tried to communicate and conduct their daily business. Communication represents an agreement among two people about the meaning that is attached to a certain word, phrase or non-verbal gesture. In the beginning, the two communicators struggle to discover each other's meaning, but as time goes on they soon develop a unique form of communication that is based on agreed meanings.

When the first immigrants arrived in the New World they discovered that it was not empty. They found a unique and rich culture of many nations. Native American tribes share many common traits, but they are each very different in many ways. Tribes living next to each other might speak a language that is from a different root language than that of their neighbors. Linguists have argued the origins of Native American language, but none can agree as to the root of the languages. Some languages resemble Asian languages; others are more closely related to the Aleuts. However, for the most part, the language has evolved to a form that it no longer recognizable from its roots.

The existence of tow very dissimilar tribes suggests movement and conquest. It does not suggest a gentle spread of language and a gradual distancing from the roots. For instance in North Carolina one can find evidences of Siouan, Iroquoian, and Algonquin language families all living next to each other. Other related languages are spread out in other parts of the country.

The first prominent immigrants of whom we have a complete record are the pilgrims that arrive in the early 1600s. We have a relatively complete record of these people and their linguistic characteristic. They left poetry, prayer books, letters and diaries from which to glean their language traits. This group of people had much opportunity for contact with the native population. They learned to plant crops, eat new and unfamiliar plant foods, and many other skills necessary for survival. The first mutual language more than likely developed out of a need for survival and consisted of words that were necessary to carry out those tasks.

On the new continent there were many new plants and animals that the newcomers had never seen. In stead of making up a new word to describe them they adopted the native word for the new plant or animal. This is one probable theory as to why there are so many Native American words to describe plants and animals. The same can be said for place names. One must consider who was the first to give directions. They would have learned the local names for geographic marker such as rivers and waterfalls. Eventually an English word may have developed for these places, but in the beginning, the native names would have more likely prevailed.

The American settlers had contact with both the Native population and people from their home in England. They wrote many letters and had much contact with their homeland. As they tried to describe this new land, they inadvertently introduce the native words that they learned into the proper English language. A few examples of Native American words that found their way back to England via correspondence by the settlers are creek, fat pine, green corn, and papoose from Massachusetts (AHD, 2000). From the Virginia colony we get catfish, corn (maize), mock[ing]bird, polecat (skunk), and raccoon (AHD, 2000). It might be noted that many of these plants and animals are native to the North American continent and would have been completely unfamiliar to the English.

The American Heritage Dictionary lists many words found in early American writings that are uniquely Native American in origin. From tribes in Rhode Island we get the word grocery (store) and hotcakes (corn cakes). From Connecticut we get settlement and swampland. From South Carolina we get the word for hickory nut. New Jersey tribes are responsible for the word frontier and pilot (meaning a guide over land route). The Chippewa provided the words for caribou, and toboggan. It might be noted that the word canoe is not of Native American origin, but came into the lexicon from the West Indies through the Spanish (AHD, 2000).

Many place names were named after the tribes that occupied the location. Some examples are Chippewa, Manhattan, and Miami. We get the names for several regions such as Appalachia and the Alleghenies. The names of the great lakes are also of Native American origin, Erie, Ontario, Huron, Michigan, and Superior. Many erroneously think that Superior is of English origin. However, the name of this lake comes from the Ojibwa word gitchi, which means "great." This became translated into French and became "Superior." (AHD, 2000). Some place names are a blend of Native American words and the immigrants that first moved to that area. Native American Place names cover the continent. A few examples are Minneapolis from Dakota minne, "water" + Greek/English (a)polis, "city"; and Bayou La Batre from Choctaw bayuk, "creek" + French de la Batre, "of the [artillery] battery"

Other place names are the result of direct English translations of Native American words, such as Spearfish in South Dakota, Ten Sleep in Wyoming, and Yellow Dirt Creek in Georgia. Alabama and Dakota are both words for "people." Minnesota is a combination of the Dakota words minne (water) + sota (white). As one can see there are several different methods by which Native American words enter into the English language. There was not one method by which Native American words became a part of the American vernacular.

The Lumbee

Robeson County, North Carolina is home to a group of unique Native Americans that speak a language that is distinct from both of their Anglo and African-American neighbors (Torbert, 2001). The Lumbee tribe has several linguistic markers that distinguish themselves from other Robeson County residents. The Lumbee transitioned from their native language to English some time in the distant past (Torbert, 2001). This is an indication that they had early contact with the first English speakers on the continent. However, the exact date and details of this contact are lost from history.

Consonant Cluster Reduction has been examined as a part of the Lumbee language. The Lumbee have many more consonant cluster reductions than their Anglo neighbors. Consonant Cluster Reduction is apparent in the local dialect of Robeson County. An example of consonant cluster reduction is the pronunciation of "ol" for Old, "min" for mind, or "lef" for left. The consonant cluster reduction of the Lunbees has come to represent the accepted language of the region. When one hears someone using this type of reduction they can almost immediately pinpoint them to the region.

An exploration of the Lumbee language is important to the understanding of how English and Native languages became blended and formed the unique language that is known as American English. One of the most telling phrases in the Lumbee language with still survives from the ancestral language is "Ep ta tay wa nay wasin." This phrase translates, "Creator, I love you." However, the phrase is most typically translated, "Jesus, I love you." This translation is quite old and tells us an important detail about how old the Lumbee blending with English occurred. According to Torbert,

It is a telling phrase, for it sums up the dual existence the Lumbee must continually negotiate: a people with an intense sense of their Native American identity who have survived in a world dominated by Anglo people, "(Torbert, p. 370).

Lumbee language gives us many clues as to how languages are negotiated when two people meet and must interact. The Lumbee have retained a strong sense of Native American identity, while at the same time, trying to make their way in a world dominated by Anglican ideals and language. The Lumbee provide us with a living example of how blending may have occurred in other parts of the country as well.

Torbert notes that the primary languages surrounding Robeson County are Iroquoian and Siouan, which have no consonant clusters. Torbert does, however note that the frequency of consonant clusters in their language is a connection to an Algonquian past. Consonant clusters do exist in Algonquian languages. Torbert feels that the frequency of consonant cluster in Lumbee is the result of a migration from the Roanoke Island area. where they would have had a great deal of contact with the local Algonquian tribes there. This is the theory proposed by Torbert. However, there is another possibility that was not considered in the literature. This hypothesized connection may simply be an indication of heavy trading between the two peoples and may not indicate a migration from the area. However, this hypothesis cannot be proven without an extensive examination of archeological evidence. Searching for signs of trade and exchange in the archeological… READ MORE

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