Research Paper on "Islamic Golden Age Was Open"

Research Paper 10 pages (4790 words) Sources: 10 Style: MLA

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Islamic Golden Age was open to the humanistic notions of individualism, liberalism, religious freedom, and cross-cultural exchange (Hassan). These notions influenced the management philosophies used by master builders, and created the idea of importing skilled Byzantine artisans to work on mosques, particularly in the area of decoration and mosaics. Such concepts can be readily identified in the construction of the Grand Mosque of Damascus, which is widely acknowledged to have borrowed several essential elements from previously existing architectural styles, the most prevalent of which was Byzantine. Notwithstanding the actual shape and overall design of the structure, which was speculated to have descended from constructions in Constantinople and from general palatial architecture endemic to Byzantine building, a large degree of the artwork which adorned the mosque was Byzantine in origin as well. There are historical records of Byzantine emperors allocating both workmen and specific mosaics which were used in the construction and decoration of this particular structure. It is also importance to recognize the wide sphere of influence that the Grand Mosque of Damascus, which has been demonstrated to incorporate various pre-existing styles of construction, most notably Byzantine, had over the construction of subsequent Islamic mosques.

In addition, master builders used quarried stone such as marble in their buildings, which required lots of labour and stonemasons. The elaborate teak wood minbar at Qairouan had to be crafted by men highly skilled in detailed woodwork. Another fairly salient example of these construction methods deployed in the Islamic Golden Age can be found in the assembling of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, which has been hailed for its roof which, at the time of construction midway through the first millennium of A.D., was innovative in no small part due to the fact that it's roof was created entirely out of imported teak. The building, as overseen by Caliph Uthman bin Affa, was supported with a stone fortification as well; the stone was individually shaped by workers and sealed with a lime mortar, which was a technique which was fairly innovative for its time. It is also noteworthy to mention the diversity of the laborers who assembled this building during its construction in 706 A.D., who were known to be of both Syrian and Coptic descent. Additionally, architecture during the Islamic Golden Age saw a development of a unique geometrical decorative style in Islamic buildings, along with tiling, calligraphy, and garden designs. Their largest contribution to construction was perhaps the enduring legacy of the skilled trades and craftsmen who perfected these decorative techniques in sculpting, metallurgy, mosaics, wood, and other material artwork (Ousterhout).

The best picture we can get of the management style of Islamic master builders is in the work of Al-Ghazali, who wrote a crucial text on political leadership. In Nasihat, he stresses factors that were common to Islamic understandings of management and useful for project arrangement. First, he emphasised that communication channels should be open between the leader and the organisation, and repeatedly tested. Such openness would have meant a smoother flow of organised construction and less miscommunication. Naturally, there was a correlation between a civil leader such as an emperor, and a building project leader, such as a master builder. In comparison with the emperor, it would also mean that problems could be stopped before they happened if the master builder remained well informed of information that might affect decisions or the building process.

Secondly, he stressed like the Greeks before him that the leader was a moral emblem. His personal behaviour must be above reproach so as to maintain the morale of the workers. This was underpinned by the religious notion that leadership was a sacred duty to be executed correctly. If he knew that his building and his duty were divinely sanctioned like this, the master builder would likely have made the utmost effort towards perfection and discipline. The degree of attention to detail and of overall awareness of a project's completion can best be evidenced by the variety of roles incorporated into the position of architect during the erection of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, the Grand Mosque of Damascus, and the Great Mosque of Kairouan.

Furthermore, it should be noted that the master builders which were accredited with most of the designing and construction of the architecture for which the Islamic Golden Ages is revered for took a decidedly utilitarian approach to the erection of these monuments. In addition to building both ecclesiastical and secular structures, master builders commonly conceived of the plans for the constructs and implemented them as well, effectively laboring as both architect and engineer. In modern times these two areas of labor are considered to be distinct from one another, yet throughout the greater part of the first millennium A.D., there was no such distinction between these duties throughout the Islamic world.

Accordingly, there was a greater amount of responsibility placed on the master building during this aforementioned era due to the wide variety of duties which were performed by this position. For example, when Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid built what many regard to be his masterpiece, the Grand Mosque of Damascus, he was responsible for virtually every aspect the building's construction from its initial planning to the completion of its dome. It can even be argued that there are certain aesthetic or utilitarian advantages to having one person conceive and construct an edifice, since there is a continuity of ideas and a manifestation of personal pride in the work which may not necessarily exist when the labor for such a structure is designed by one and actually carried out by another. As a result of such a management philosophy, elegant mosques were built in the Islamic Golden Age.

5. Conclusion (Please elaborate to 950 words)

One of the significant contributions of Byzantine culture to theories of management came in preserving and transmitting ancient theories. Although their scribes made improvements to grammar and writing, it is unclear how these affected management. Nonetheless, a number of points can be made about labour organisation. The earliest form of European trade guilds developed in the Byzantine era. Training schools or workshops made it possible for apprentices to learn a trade and move up through experience (Ousterhout 52). While their organisation is not well-known, they provided skilled masons for construction of the Hagia Sophia, probably working in competition against one another in large teams supervised by middle managers. They also provided skilled mosaicists for later mosques.

The influence of these artisans, and the works of artistic value which they produced, should not be underestimated, particularly in regards to the construction of edifices such as the Hagia Irene, the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, as well as the Hagia Sophia. One of the most salient of the reconstruction changes applied to the Hagia Irene following its dilapidation due to an eighth century earthquake and instituted by Emperor Constantine V was the furnish its interior with artwork including mosaics. As if to underscore this point, the church is currently used in modern times as a museum The purveyance of artistic designs was even more eminent in the presentation of the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, which is largely known for its series of graphic artwork which lined its walls, many of which was destroyed and many of which still endures. The lifelike depictions of various scenes of religion and figures both gothic and Byzantine dutifully reflect the labor of the artists who were trained in the aforementioned trade workshops, or whose craft was directly descended from just such a practice to enable the church to feature, at various times in its history, representation of Jesus's parables and crucifixion. This tradition of art, its creation and its practice, is one of the foremost contributions of the European trade guilds which were developed during the Byzantine era.

Not surprisingly, the primary foundation which the management of the construction of architecture was based upon can be traced back to the religious influence of the church as an organizing power. Christianity in particular played a broad role in the social hierarchy and its management which inherently was made manifest in architectural works. The privately financed largess of a number of benefactors contributed to the virtually unparalleled influence of this particular religion during the Byzantine Empire, instituted its management from the leaders of the church to those of martial affairs.

Consequently, the erection of the Hagia Irene, the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare Nuova and the Hagia Sophia were initially completed to supplement the management prowess and influence of the Byzantine religion. The Hagia Irene in particular played a substantial part in the facilitation of ecclesiastical power in this region during this time period, as it was first used as a location for meetings of the First Council of Constantinople, in addition to serving as a place for religious worship. Additionally, it should be noted that this church was a symbol of the assertion of Christianity and its hegemony in the region, because it was built upon what Christians considered to be a pagan temple.

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