Term Paper on "Homeostasis Motivation Biological Psychological and Environmental"

Term Paper 6 pages (2134 words) Sources: 5

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Homeostasis and Motivation

Homeostasis

Evolutionary theories have claimed that the role of each organism is to successfully reproduce itself and to survive long enough to achieve this goal (Latteman, 2008). In order to achieve survival, the human organism requires homeostasis. Homeostasis can be defined as the propensity of the body to maintain stable internal states at adaptive levels that respond to negative feedback physiological and behavioral mechanisms that react to current needs while anticipating the future needs of the organism (Pinel & Assanand, 2000). The individual is motivated by internal stimuli to respond in such a manner that ensures that any deviations from this internal balance are restored quickly and efficiently. In some cases the body can respond by modifying internal states and in other cases it must interact with the external environment to achieve this goal.

Homeostasis and Motivation

Evolutionary theories have claimed that the role of each organism is to successfully reproduce itself and to survive long enough to achieve this goal (Latteman, 2008). In order to achieve survival, the human organism requires homeostasis, the internal balance of all physiological functions in order to maintain optimum functioning and in many cases to remain alive (Lagraize, Borzan, Rinker, Kopp, & Fuchs, 2004). This concept of maintaining internal stability was created by physiologist Walter Cannon in 1925 and has been further developed over time (Berridge, 2004). When internal stability is compromised, the body becomes motivated to restore this balance and will find ways to do so. The manner in which this is accomplished depends on the severity of the imbalance and its impact on functioning and ultimately survival.

Maintaining internal balance includes the regulation of body temperature as well as an adequate supply of calcium, sugar, proteins, fats, and vitamins to the body. The exchange of oxygen supply and carbon dioxide excretion and other waste products also contributes to the maintenance of balance and optimal bodily functioning (Pinel & Assanand, 2000). The body also requires a balance of hormonal glands secretions in order to maintain homeostasis, the constant physiological balance. The disturbance of this constant balance disrupts the proper function of physiological processes. The disturbance of homeostasis can occur from environmental causes, external factors, genetics, as well as biological factors that result in disequilibrium (Pinel & Assanand, 2000). These issues create disturbances that occur across organisms but that may manifest themselves through different behavioral or physical responses. Individuals who are unable to maintain homeostasis will seek avenues through which these needs can be met and balance restored.

Lagraize et al. (2004) described homeostasis as the organism's propensity toward maintenance of a health balance of the body's physiological states despite the integration of systems. When an organism experiences a stressor that jeopardizes this internal balance it becomes motivated to compensate for the break down in order to ensure survival. Tsitolovsky (2005) takes this a step further by focusing on the sensori-motor interactions that produce action in response to the stressful stimuli. This process will continue until the organism is able to restore the internal physiological balance.

Yet the achievement of homeostasis is not simple. The organism must achieve this goal while surviving in a challenging environment where restoration is not always imminent. For example, in attempting to address hunger, the organism has the challenge of finding food in environments where the food supply may not be adequate (Latteman, 2008). The organism must continually monitor not only the internal balance but the availability of means to meet these needs. This is accomplished through the development of highly sensitive and effective neural systems that allow organisms to learn and remember stimuli about their environment (Latteman, 2008). This homeostatic regulation can be described as being intrinsic in the functioning of all organisms yet these drives can become challenged when faced with other physiological processes or competing need areas (Latteman, 2008). For example, humans must maintain a stable body temperature in order to function yet this can become difficult when balanced with the need to address hunger in unstable climates.

Motivation has been explained as the organism's individual response to its current physiological state. The primary goal of the response is to maintain the physical integrity of the individual (Tsitolovsky, 2005). This motivation influences the actions of the organism in order to ensure optimal functioning. Tsitolovsky (2005) describes motivation as having both subjective and objective attributes and has application to behaviors as well as biological functioning. Motivation is modulated by the internal state of the organism and is directly linked to the incentives that the organism believes they will experience. These motivations can take the form of eating, drinking, breathing, temperature regulation, sleep, avoidance of danger, and the experience of pain (Lagraize et al., 2004). An organism may go to great lengths to achieve these motivations which can be satisfied by reward or punishment. According to Tsitolovsky (2005), motivation includes the appetitive stage, the reinforcement seeking phase, and the achievement phase in which the individual receives the reward. The ultimate reward is the restoration of internal balance.

When an individual experiences pain, hunger, thirst, etc. An intrinsic mechanism is engaged that motivates organisms to behave in a manner that enhances survival. The focus becomes responding to the stimuli. In cases where two physiological processes are challenged at the same time the organism must choose which to attend to first as it can only address one homeostatic imbalance at a time (LaGraize et al., 2004). The organism will address the imbalance that is greatest in intensity at that moment. For example, if an organism is experiencing pain and hunger simultaneously, depending on the degree of discomfort, it will seek to address the pain while ignoring the hunger. Once the pain has been addressed then hunger becomes the priority (LaGraize et al., 2004).

One theory of motivation is the set point assumption which claims that the body's attempt to restore itself to physiological balance is the direct result of a deficiency in one of the physiological systems (Berridge, 2004). This theory claims that once the internal balance is achieved that the body can maintain this balance and will not act until this balance declines to the point of requiring action or risk impacting functioning. This theory includes the idea that there are three components: the set point, the detector mechanism by which deficiencies are identified, and the effecter mechanism which ensures that these deficiencies are rectified (Berridge, 2004).

When applied to hunger, the set-point assumption attributes hunger to an energy deficiency in the body and consumption as the restoration of energy level to their optimal point of functioning (Pinel & Assanand, 2000; Lutter & Nestler, 2009). This theory believes that once a person has dropped below their set point that they will experience increases in hunger and in eating should food be available to them at that time (Lutter & Nestler, 2009). People are motivated to eat due to the decline below their set-point. Satiety occurs when readily useable energy levels are either at or above the set homeostatic point (Pinel & Assanand, 2000). In this theory people will also top eating when they have reached a point of balance and the body has what it needs. Another aspect of the set-point theory is the ability to the body, through use of a set-point, to maintain the body at energy levels that ensure good health and survival in the even when environmental conditions change (Pinel & Assanand, 2000).

A major issue with this theory is the tendency for persons to eat more than is necessary to maintain their health and the growing levels of obesity in the United States. There is a significant variation amongst people in terms of daily caloric intake and body mass index (Pinel & Assanand, 2000). Set-point theorists have argued that people have different energy set points, that set points change over time, and that in some people the signals that inform the body of the energy levels may be ineffective and lead to over or under eating (Pinel & Assanand, 2000). Another criticism of this theory is its lack of congruence with the theory of evolution. In order for any organism to survive it must be equipped with the skills necessary to not only react to energy levels but to prevent and foresee possible energy deficits (Pinel & Assanand, 2000). In order to play a role in survival, hunger and eating must be a part of a system that is able to function well above immediate energy resources of the body so that if food becomes unavailable survival is still possibly (Pinel & Assanand, 2000). The set point theory has been quite popular over the course of history despite a strong lack of support for the accuracy of its claims. One strength of set-point theory is that it provides a justification of both hunger and weight regulation.

Homeostasis restoration can also be described through the use of a settling point theory. This theory believes that physiological states have a tendency to maintain appropriate levels in order to achieve equilibrium (Tsitolovsky, 2005). These… READ MORE

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