Essay on "Gender Differences -- Nature vs. Nurture Memo"

Essay 7 pages (2171 words) Sources: 12 Style: APA

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Gender Differences -- Nature vs. Nurture

Memo to Mr. Sam Lufti

Since the beginning of humankind, man and woman noticed the physiological differences between the sexes. However, much debate has centered on whether or not the more psychological aspects of the two gender personalities are innate to the gender, a product of socialization, or some combination of both forces. For decades, according to Scarr (1993), developmentalists, even more than social scientists, have understood that both environmental factors as well as biological factors are needed to fully explain human development. This paper argues that there are both biological and socialization factors that play a part in gender differences in interests and abilities, in accordance to Money and Ehrhadt's (1972) model regarding gender identity. Both the social construction of gender is reviewed, as well as the biological factors defining gender interests and abilities.

Gender Differences -- Nature vs. Nurture

Introduction:

Since the beginning of humankind, man and woman noticed the physiological differences between the sexes. However, much debate has centered on whether or not the more psychological aspects of the two gender personalities are innate to the gender, a product of socialization, or some combination of both forces. For decades, according to Scarr (1993), developmentalists, even more than social scientists, have understood that both environmental factors as well as biological factors are needed to fully explain human development. This paper argues that there are both biological and socialization factors that play a part in gender differences in interests and abilities, in accordance to Money and Ehrhadt's (1972) model regarding gender identity. Both the social construction of gender is reviewed, as well as the biological factors defining gender interests and abilities.

Money and Ehrhadt's Masculinity-Femininity Model:

Money and Ehrhardt (1972) investigated gender identity differentiation. The researchers identified a developmental sequence of not only environmental events, but also biological events, which were the basis for adult gender identity. Beginning with conception, the sex chromosome configuration is what leads to the differentiation of the gonads in the fetus. This then leads to the hormonal differentiation in the fetus, as either the absences or presence of fetal androgens. This is what causes dimorphism in the human species -- two distinct forms, male and female. This dimorphism, however, is not simply expressed in the internal and external genitalia, but also in certain areas of the development of the brain (p. 3). With these biological changes caused by hormonal differentiation, sociological events occur as well.

Money and Ehrhardt (1972) noted that there are sociological effects to the appearance of the differentiated external genitalia, from birth. This physiological result of hormonal differences causes others to not only define the individual, but also behave towards the person as if they were female or male. This social interaction also affects the individual's own definition of their body image as being masculine or feminine. When these processes are combined with the brain dimorphism 'juvenile gender identity' occurs. At puberty, the gonads and the hormones they produce once again come into effect, stimulating differences in gender body appearance and eroticism. As these interact with the earlier juvenile gender identity and dimorphism of the brain, the individual's 'adult gender identity' is formed (p. 3). It is this interplay of both internal and external forces, not simply the biological forces begun at conception, that create the gender differences in the species.

Citing a variety of literature on gender identity development, Money and Ehrhardt (1972) place particular emphasis on the sociological component of gender differentiation of interests and abilities. In particular, they note that the learning of gender appropriate behaviors is driven by learning what is complementary to individuals of the opposite sex. The researchers state, "the fact is that children differentiate a gender role and identity by way of complementation to members of the opposite sex and identification with members of the same sex" (p. 13). In addition, 'gender-feedback' is surmised as a factor in gender differentiation of interests and abilities. It is noted that the interactions begin between parents and children at infancy, where gender-appropriate behaviors are reinforced. A variety of developmental psychology research is cited to support this claim (p. 179-182). Although clearly the innate differences in gender begin at conception, it is through sociological forces that these inborn traits are reinforced.

The Social Construction of Gender:

According to McCrate (1988) there is a social construction of gender that reinforces the inborn characteristics of physical femininity and masculinity. Her theory centers on "a discriminatory economic system (that) produces men and women whose socially differentiated capacities for performing and enjoying various types of work are much more distinct than their innate endowments. In other words, preferences and productive abilities are endogenous." Although innate biological aspects that affect gender differentiation, society is what reinforces gender identity.

Women and men are both limited in the opportunities to explore and develop their identities in a male-dominant society, according to McCrate (1988). A review of previous literature on the topic demonstrated for the author that even without manipulation from the media or family, women's and men's preferences develop differently. However, instead of attributing this developmental difference to biological factors, McCrate theorizes that it is due to a societal impediment to understanding the work of the other sex. McCrate surmises that without this understanding, the opposite sex can't begin to rank it in preference ordering. In addition, even if there is a reasonable knowledge of all activities present, men and women will learn by observing others and their own experience. For women, this means that their investment in feminine and maternal activities and behaviors is reinforced by society, whereas men would be encouraged by society to follow the opposite. "Women therefore choose to learn to prefer mothering over auto mechanics for the same reason that one would choose to learn to enjoy winter rather than summer sports in cold climates: the expected payoff is higher." For this reason, men and women rationally develop preferences and identities that are stereotypical to their gender.

This development of gender-typed preferences leads to the development of very different abilities and tastes. In addition, it restricts the possibility that an individual of a specific gender will choose, at some future point, to invest in a significantly different preference (McCrate, 1988). Even with the innate forces of biology creating dimorphism in the brain development as well as physiological development, society reinforces this dimorphism, forcing individuals into specific gender roles. Yet, these biological factors do play a role.

Innate Biological Factors in Defining Gender Interests and Abilities:

Starr (1993) noted, "What has been missing is a full appreciation of biology, especially genetics, with its enormous implications for human development." Kriegman (1999) utilizes research of identical twins separated at birth demonstrates how innate personality traits can be. In one study, identical twin girls, Ellen and Shauna, were separated in infancy. They were raised apart, by different adoptive parents. When the girls were two and a half years old the mothers were asked a series of questions. One adoptive mother reported that everything was fine with Shauna except she wouldn't eat anything unless there was cinnamon on it. Ellen's adoptive mother said she ate well, as long as she too put cinnamon on the food.

A second study reported by Kriegman (1999) also involved identical twins separated at birth. These men were raised in different countries by their adoptive parents. As Kriegman noted, "Both kept their lives neat -- neat to the point of pathology. Their clothes were preened, appointments met precisely on time, hands scrubbed regularly to a raw, red color." Interestingly, one twin's adopted mother was also pathologically neat with dozens of clocks set to the same noonday chime, and he insisted that it was this overly neat mother's influence that led him to his current level of ultra-neatness. The other twin who was just as neat and tidy as his brother insisted that it was in reaction to his mother who was extremely slovenly. Clearly these sample studies indicate innate personality traits that had nothing to do with the sociological environment the twins were raised in, just as innate traits for gender are present as well, that can affect interests.

Abilities too are affected by the physical differences in men and women. At birth, males are on average heavier and longer than females. They have a proportionately larger heart. Male hormones facilitate protein synthesis and they have a higher basal metabolism. These physiological features prepare them for a more physically strenuous life than their female counterparts (Kriegman, 1999). This natural tendency to be stronger and faster and more physically active predisposes males to certain abilities. However, in contrast to these physical advantages, females have developmental advantages that affect their abilities.

Females, according to Kriegman (1999) hit developmental milestones much faster than males, such as walking and talking. A newborn girl is equivalent in maturity to a 4- to 6-week-old boy. Where males exhibit more gross motor movement, female infants are advanced in regards to finer movements, such as mouthing and smiling. Again, these developmental differences… READ MORE

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