Essay on "Fashion and Identity Fashion, Culture, and Personal"

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Fashion and Identity

Fashion, Culture, and Personal Identity

Culture is a complex phenomenon. Any gathering of human beings develops its own culture given enough time; this can be observed on both macro and micro levels. In the study of history and art, scholars speak of Roman culture or Western culture as a way of referring to the broad and generalized values -- both moralistic and aesthetic -- that typify a given society in a certain period of history. On a smaller level, different localities have their own cultures that can be markedly different reflections of the dominant super-culture present in society at large -- the cultures of both San Diego, California and Bangor, Maine will in some ways reflect the larger United States and Western culture, but they also have many differences. Some of these differences are brought about by things beyond human control. Weather, for instance, can be a major contributing factor to the culture of an area. The mild and consistent weather of San Diego is conducive to a more relaxed attitude and way of life than the harsh and extreme winters of Bangor, and this necessarily has an effect on the culture of the two cities.

Weather is also one of the most important factors in determining the clothing that people wear. Using the same examples, it should be fairly obvious that the bathing suits and sandals that make for standard San Diego are would hardly be appropriate in Bangor, just as the snow suits and heavy boots of a Bangorian would be extremely uncomfortable in that standard eighty-degree weather of San Diego. This shows, in one very small yet hopefully quite clear manner, the smaller levels of difference that are

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used to distinguish smaller groups within a wider culture. Weather is, of course, only one factor (and certainly not the most significant) in shaping a culture, and there are many other unpredictable factors that cause a culture to change both in both subtle and dramatic ways as history progresses and societies evolve.

These forces are at work in cultures at large, in the smaller sub-cultures that appear in different regions and localities, and even down to smaller sub-groups, families, and even so far the every individual expresses their culture in their own slightly unique way. In this way, then, identity is very much linked to culture. It is impossible for one to escape their culture; every individual that lives in a given region or population is by definition a contributing factor in their culture. The many different and subtle influences at work in every individual's lives and that help to shape their personality, however, make each individual express that culture differently. And just like weather influences the type of clothing worn in a given culture, other cultural influences also shape what one wears, and therefore the specific constraints and constructs that allow them to express their identity. Just as there is no individual without a culture, there is no identity for that individual that does not find its expression through the elements of culture.

Clothing is certainly not the only means by which one can shape and express their identity; there are many other cultural artifacts that an individual uses and/or interacts with that can help to both shape and reflect their individual personalities. Yet fashion -- the clothing one wears and other conscious aspects of their general physical appearance -- is the most immediate and forthright statement one makes about themselves, whether or not they would like this to be true. Regardless of the light in which this fact is seen -- that is, whether or not the emphasis placed on fashion is perceived positively or negatively -- it is unequivocally true.

The vast majority of the information human beings receive and process from the world round them occurs visually. Judging someone based on their appearance is not shallow (unless taken to certain extremes), but instead is perfectly natural and even purposeful. This can be observed especially clearly in high schools and other places where large groups of adolescents are found -- the many different styles of dress reflect the different social groups to which each individual belongs, or to which they are trying to belong. Sometimes, this dress varies in an extreme way from the standard or "normal" style of a given culture, making a much more obvious if not more definitive statement about one's identity. As Wilson (1992) puts it, "counter-cultural dress forces us to recognize the individuals and groups use dress in subtle ways to create meaning, to locate themselves in society in a variety of ways." One might take a slight exception to his use of the term "counter-culture"; subculture is perhaps more appropriate, but his basic meaning is clear -- dress is used as a way to identify and to be identified.

At first glance, fashion and an individual's own proclivities in the field might seem to be purely an issue of aesthetics. A deeper examination of the phenomenon, however, reveals how essential the concept of clothing and appearance are in the formation of social identities. Presumably, one likes the aesthetics of most of the clothes one owns, yet each time an individual gets dressed he or she must choose which of their clothes they would like to wear that day. Essentially, getting dressed is a conscious or semi-conscious preparation and construction of identity. Zelinsky (2004) notes that 'the only other set of cultural choices confronted with such regularity or complexity has to do with what we eat and drink," which it should be noted are also matters of survival. Fashion, then, represents the only set of complex cultural decisions we face on a daily basis that are purely related to our sense of identity, not our survival.

It should seem fairly obvious, then, that fashion is perhaps the primary method individuals use to create their sense of social identity within the broader context of cultural constraints. This was not always the case, however: "In the last two decades the postmodernist (POMO) scholars have popularized the concepts of subjectivity, authenticity, modernity and nativity in academia while rejecting the role of larger structural, institutional and historical forces (referred as meta-narrative) in understanding social and cultural issues" (Bahl 2005). The emphasis on how individuals define their identity is not incorrect in and of itself, but the failure to recognize that individuals do so within and in reaction to meta-institutions like (perhaps most importantly given its all-encompassing nature) culture has misconstrued the postmodern sense of identity as an inherently personal, rather than collective, phenomenon.

It must be understood, then, that culture and its constituent parts, namely fashion, play a vital role not only in how we are able to represent ourselves, but also in who we are, and what our identity is able to consist of. An option that is not culturally available -- one that is not simply frowned upon, but truly not represented -- is simply not an option for an individual's identity. Fashion, then, plays a vital role in shaping an individual's identity. How fashion shapes identity, however, can vary greatly from individual to individual, and from demographic to demographic. Gender is, of course, a major component of an individual's identity, and there are drastic differences in the way men and women use fashion to develop and represent their sense of identity.

Women's fashion is in near constant change, and has historically had more variation from individual to individual. Men's fashion, on the other hnad, seldom departs from the traditional "ensemble of jacket and trousers -- almost always in black or a somber shade of gray, blue, or brown, with shirt, tie, stockings, shoes or boots, and optional vest or waistcoat, with or without various accessories" (Zelinsky 2004). This possibly suggests alternative methods for males to develop and represent their identity within historic cultural frameworks, whereas women have traditionally been more dependent on fashion as a means of identification. This dependence is truly a form of imposition, where the fashion of a culture in a given period arguably had a much stronger influence on feminine identity than masculine. Whereas men's fashion remained fairly uniform, reflecting both the established nature of masculine identity and the myriad other channels of differentiation and identity formation among men, the changes in women's fashion over time can be seen as reflecting the changing attitudes and identities desired and prescribed for women by the dominant culture forces of a given time period.

This theory is given credence both by an examination of historical changes in gender structure and by the changing modes of female dress over time. When twentieth century actresses in China began appropriating male dress, they also appropriated traditionally masculine roles in their profession, and "by playing male characters onstage they openly challenged entrenched definitions of femininity and womanhood" (Cheng 2003). Similarly, the "Mod" style of dress exhibited by the outfit Twiggy is wearing in the first picture is at once a re-appropriation of certain symbols nd a statement about a new female identity.… READ MORE

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Quoted Instructions for "Fashion and Identity Fashion, Culture, and Personal" Assignment:

“

THE ***** Jo Gurley ALREADY USED TO WORK ON THIS PIECE OF WRITING!!!

An essay presented in academic form with referencing and bibliography 1,500 *****“ 2,000 words in length

Answer the following question:

How is fashion and appearance central to the construction of social identities? Discuss, with reference to specific examples

Your answer should include:

- Reference to key themes, debates and concepts raised in the unit

- Referenced quotations (using Harvard referencing) from at least four academic texts *****“ at least two of which should be from the unit reader - to support your argument

- A critical analysis of examples relevant to your degree subject

I WILL ALSO EMAIL YOU A COPY OF MY RESEARCH FILE. THERE YOU WILL SEE OF WHAT THE ESSAY SHOULD BE ABOUT AND PLEASE ALSO INCLUDE THE PICTURES FROM THERE.

LIST OF BOOKS:

Baldwin, E. et al 1999 Introducing Cultural Studies London: Prentice Hall

Useful and relatively accessible introduction to the main themes of cultural studies, does not focus on fashion but offers a valuable overview of many of the key ideas used to study and understand fashion within a cultural studies approach.

Barker, C. 2000 Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice London: *****

Useful and relatively accessible introduction to the main themes of cultural studies, does not focus on fashion but offers a valuable overview of many of the key ideas used to study and understand fashion within a cultural studies approach.

â–ºBreward, C. 1998 *****˜Cultures, Identities, Histories. Fashioning a Cultural Approach to Dress*****. in Fashion Theory Vol 2 No 4

Invaluable (and short) introduction to Cultural Studies approaches to studying fashion

Breward, C. 2003 Fashion Oxford: Oxford University Press

Invaluable introduction to understanding fashion, introduces many of the key issues that are central to this unit.

Entwistle, J. 2000 The Fashioned Body: Fashion, Dress and Modern Social Theory Cambridge: Polity

Hugely useful overview of many of the issues covered in this unit. Do not be put off by chapter one which is far more complex than those that follow.

â–ºDant, T. 1999 *****˜Wearing it out: Written clothing and Material clothing*****, in, T. Dant, 1999, Material Culture in the Social World Buckingham: University Press

Clear and very useful discussion of many of the key ideas that underpin this unit.

Finkelstein, J. 1996. After a Fashion Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.

Short, lucid and accessible introduction to many key approaches to understanding fashion.

Storey, J. 1997 An Introduction to Cultural Theory and Popular Culture London: Prentice Hall.

Useful and relatively accessible introduction to the main themes of cultural studies, does not focus on fashion but offers a valuable overview of many of the key ideas used to study and understand fashion within a cultural studies approach.

Strinati, D. 1993 An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture London: Routledge

Useful and relatively accessible introduction to the main themes of cultural studies, does not focus on fashion but offers a valuable overview of many of the key ideas used to study and understand fashion within a cultural studies approach

Taylor, L. 2002 The Study of Dress History Manchester: Manchester University Press

Overview of approaches to the historical study of clothing.

WEEK 2 The Fashioned Body

Brush Kidwell, C. 1989. *****˜Gender Symbols or fashion details***** in C. Brush Kidwell and V. Steele eds., Men and Women: Dressing the Part Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press

Examines ways in which the fashion industry has repeatedly redesigned the shape of the human body.

Breward, C. 1995. The Culture of Fashion Manchester: Manchester University Press

Social history of fashion from the Medieval period to the present, useful for its attention to situating clothes in their cultural context.

Curry, D. 1993. *****˜Decorating the body politic***** New Formations 19

Why body modification - in the forms of piercing and tattooing - is experienced by many as a political act.

Davis, K 1995 Reshaping the Female Body: The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery New York: Routledge

Engrossing study of cosmetic surgery.

Gilman, S. 1999 Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery Princeton: Princeton University Press

Self explanatory title *****“ particular fascinating in its global and historical perspective.

Hall, S. 1992 The Question of Cultural Identity, in S. Hall et al (eds). Modernity and its Futures Cambridge: Polity

Not fashion focused but a very useful overview of ways of understanding identity

â–ºMacdonald, M. 1995. Refashioning the Body. in Representing Women: Myths of Femininity in the Popular Media London: Edward Arnold

Short discussion of the relationship of women to fashion and the feminine ideals circulated by fashion.

MacKendrick, K. 1998. *****˜Technoflesh or, *****Didn*****t that hurt?********** Fashion Theory 2 (1)

Cogent theorisation of body modification - in the forms of piercing and tattooing etc

Steele, V. 2001, The Corset: A Cultural History New Haven and London: Yale University Press

Self explanatory title - highly readable and beautifully illustrated.

Steele, V. 1999 *****˜The corset: fashion and eroticism*****, Fashion Theory 3 (4)

Examination of how the corset was implicated in nineteenth century conceptions of female erotic beauty.

Steele, V. 1989. *****˜Appearance and identity***** in C. Brush Kidwell and V. Steele eds., Men and Women: Dressing the Part Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press

Explores the way in which appearance is linked to the concept of identity with particular reference to historical conceptions of gender and power.

Summers, L. 2001. Bound to Please: a History of the Victorian Corset Oxford: Berg

Detailed historical analysis of the corset in the Victorian period.

Thesander, M. 1997. The Feminine Ideal London: Reaktion Books

Changing ideals of the female body situated in historical and cultural context.

WEEK 3 The Great Masculine Renunciation?

Chenoune, F. 1993. A History of Men*****s Fashion Paris: Flammarion

Exactly what it says on the tin - highly engaging and lavishly illustrated.

â–ºCraik, J. 1994. *****˜Fashioning masculinity***** in J. Craik The Face of Fashion London: Routledge

The fall and rise of male fashion.

Gottdiener, M. 1995. *****˜Unisex fashions and gender role change***** in Postmodern Semiotics Oxford: Blackwell

Exploration of the social processes governing clothing and gender roles and the uneasy development of unisex styles.

Hollander, A. 1994 Sex and Suits New York: Kodansha International

Historical study of the relationship between tailoring and gender, contains material relevant to many aspects of this unit

Steele, V. 1989. *****˜Clothing and sexuality***** in C. Brush Kidwell and V. Steele eds., Men and Women: Dressing the Part Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press

Addresses, as the title suggests, the relationship between clothing and sexuality offering a useful commentary on how we do, or do not, dress to be sexually attractive.

Vinken, B. 1999. *****˜Transvesty - travesty: fashion and gender***** in Fashion Theory 3 (1)

Explores the historical relationship between clothing and the performance of gendered identity.

WEEK 4 The Great Masculine Renunciation? - Renounced?

Ash, J. 1989. *****˜Tarting up men: menswear and gender dynamics***** in J. Attfield and P. Kirkham eds., A View from the Interior: Feminism, Women and Design London: Women*****s Press

The menswear *****˜revolution***** of the mid 1980s.

â–ºBarker, C. 2000. *****˜Youth, style and resistance*****, in, C. Barker, Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice London: *****

Very useful overview of approaches to understanding youth subcultures.

Breward, C. 1999. *****˜Renouncing consumption: men, fashion and luxury, 1870 *****“ 1914***** in A. de la Haye and E. Wilson eds. Defining Dress: Dress as Object, Meaning and Identity Manchester: Manchester University Press

Short essay which explores the specificity of changing male fashion conventions in the period following *****˜the great masculine renunciation*****.

Cole, S. 2000. *****˜Macho Man: Clones and the development of a masculine stereotype***** Fashion Theory 4 (2)

The development of *****˜macho***** gay male fashion and its influence on mainstream *****˜straight***** male fashions.

Edwards, T. 1997. Men in the Mirror: Men*****s Fashion, Masculinity and Consumer Society. London: Cassell

Useful study of contemporary male fashion in relation to debates around identity and consumer society.

Gelder, K. and Thornton, S. eds. 1997. The Subcultures Reader London: Routledge

Collection of extracts, with helpful commentary from the editors, which explore the question of subculture from a range of differing theoretical and historical perspectives.

Hebdige, D. 1979. Subculture: The Meaning of Style London: Methuen

A very influential book that conceives of youth subcultures as authentic forms of resistance to dominant culture. Now the subject of considerable debate - are subcultures still like this? Were they ever? What is *****˜authenticity***** anyway? etc, etc.

Jobling, P. 1999. *****˜Statue men: the phallic body, identity and ambiguity in fashion photography***** in P. Jobling Fashion Spreads: Word and Image in Fashion Photography Since 1980 Oxford: Berg

Sophisticated discussion of the representation of the male body in contemporary fashion photography.

Malossi, G. ed. 2000. Material Man: Masculinity, Sexuality, Style New York: Abrams

Collection of short accessible and sumptuously illustrated essays exploring fashion and masculine identity.

McRobbie, A. 1981. *****˜Settling accounts with subcultures: a feminist critique***** in T. Bennett et al eds. Culture, Ideology and Social Process London: Batsford

Critical of Hebdige above. Why when men dress up are they theorised as authentic rebels given that when women do the same they are often considered exploited bimbos? etc.

Mort, F. 1996 Cultures of Consumption London: Routledge

Epic study of the changing role of consumption in the performance of masculinity, paying particular attention to issues of fashion.

Nixon, S. 1996. Hard Looks: Masculinities, Spectatorship and Contemporary Consumption London: UCL Press

In-depth analysis of the increasing centrality of fashion consumption in the construction of male identities.

Nixon, S. 1997. *****˜Exhibiting masculinity***** in S. Hall ed. Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices London: *****

Theorises male gender identity as cultural construction with particular reference to fashion and the *****˜new man*****.

Nixon, S. 2001 Resignifying Masculinity: From New Man to New Lad, in, D. Morley and K. Robins (eds). British Cultural Studies Oxford: Oxford University Press

Short and accessible discussion of changing representations of masculinity in the style press.

Pumphrey, M. 1989. *****˜Why do cowboys wear hats in the bath? Style politics for the older man***** Critical Quarterly 31 (3)

Useful discussion of changes in male fashion. Examines, among other things, why the displayed male body has so frequently been conceived of as a homoerotic object and asks if this is changing?

Thornton, S. 1995. Club Cultures: Music, Media and Subcultural Capital Oxford: Polity

Detailed study of nineties youth subcultures exploring their relationship to various forms of media and how they are used by their participants.

Week 6 Representing fashion

Arnold, R. 2001 Fashion, Desire and Anxiety: Image and Morality in the 20th Century London: I. B. Tauris

Accessible discussion of fashion trends and photography, focusing, as the title suggests, on issues of desire and anxiety. Notable in its detailed attention to specific examples and cultural context.

Berger, J. 1972 Ways of Seeing London: Penguin

Clear and lively account of the gender imbalance of gaze in relation to both fashion advertisements and fine art nudes

â–ºBranston, G. and Stafford, R. 1999 *****˜Representations*****, in The Media Students Book. London: Routledge.

Breward, C. *****˜Fashion on the Page*****, in Welters, L. and Lillethun, A. (eds) 2007 The Fashion Reader. Oxford: Berg.

A short accessible excerpt that outline the representation of fashion in magazines from the early 19th century to Dazed and Confused.

Buckley, C. and H. Fawcett. 2002. Fashioning the Feminine: Representation and Women*****s Fashion from the Fin de Siecle to the Present I. B. Tauris

Explores the ambiguous sexual politics of fashion in a number of twentieth century historical contexts - chapter 5 - which explores young women*****s fashion in contemporary Newcastle - is particularly relevant.

Hall, S. 1997 The Work of Representation. in, S. Hall (ed) Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices London: *****

Almost certain to *****˜do your head in***** on first reading but a very valuable introduction to ways of understanding representation and its full significance.

Hall-Duncan, N. (1979) The History of Fashion Photography. New York: Alpine Book Company.

Clear illustrated comprehensive history of fashion photography.

Mulvey , L. 1989 *****˜Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema*****, in Visual and Other Pleasures. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Mulvey*****s seminal essay on the gaze and a template for any analysis of the representation of women in conventional narrative

â–ºSturken, M. and Cartwright, L 2001 *****˜Spectatorship, Power and Knowledge*****, in Practices of Looking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Excellent wide ranging discussion of spectatorship

Tseelon, E. 2000 Women and the Gaze, in, D. Fleming (ed). Formations: a 21st Century Media Studies Textbook Manchester: Manchester University Press

Focused on film and not the most accessible text listed here but a usefully critical introduction to a key concept in the study of fashion and gender.

Tudor, A. 1999 Decoding Culture. London: *****

Clear critical discussion of theories of active readership.

Wallerstein, K . 1998. *****˜Thinness and other refusals in contemporary fashion advertisements***** Fashion Theory 2 (2)

Like Jobling above offers interesting discussion of recurring themes in contemporary fashion advertising, addressing obvious issues - anorexia, heroin and pornography - without coming to obvious conclusions.

Week 7 Consuming fashion

Abbott, P. and Sapsford, F. 2001 Young Women and Their Wardrobes, in, A. Guy et al (eds). Through the Wardrobe: Women*****s Relationship to Their Clothes Oxford: Berg

Short and accessible study of the place of fashion in young womens lives and the influences on their purchasing decisions

Beckingham, C. 2005 Is Fashion a Woman*****s Right? Brighton: Sussex Academic Press

Very useful discussion of the relationship between feminist values and fashion in both historical and contemporary contexts, concluding that it is a *****potential source of joy*****.

Church Gibson, P. 2000 Redressing the Balance: Patriarchy, Postmodernism and Feminism, in S. Bruzzi and P. Church Gibson Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations and Analysis London: Routledge

Discussion of the shifting, and often ambivalent, feminist view of fashion.

Evans, C. and Thornton, M. 1989. *****˜Feminism, fashion, femininity***** in C. Evans and M Thornton Women and Fashion: A New Look London: Quartet

Useful overview of *****˜the feminist rejection of fashion*****.

Foote, S. 1989. *****˜Challenging gender symbols***** in C. Brush Kidwell and V. Steele, eds., Men and Women: Dressing the Part Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press

Study of C19 outrage at women wearing trousers and C20 discomfort at men with long hair.

Jeffreys, S. 2005. Beauty and Misogyny: Harmful Cultural Practices in the West London: Routledge

Radical and angry critique of both, a range of contemporary western beauty practices, and, feminist approaches to fashion which foreground issues of choice, pleasure and creativity. Chapter one explores the diversity of feminist approaches to fashion and beauty; subsequent chapters explore these issues in relationship to specific practices including fashion design and make up.

Jobling, P. 1998. *****˜Who*****s that girl?***** Fashion Theory 2 (3)

Like Wallerstein below offers interesting discussion of recurring themes in contemporary fashion advertising, addressing obvious issues - anorexia, heroin and pornography - without coming to obvious conclusions.

Kunzle, D. 1982. *****˜The campaign of the humorists***** in, D. Kunzle Fashion and Fetishism Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield

Argues that C19 tightlacing techniques far from being necessarily oppressive of women allowed them to feel sexual - in transgression of the gender norms of the time - and were widely condemned by those hostile to the suffragette movement.

Lewis, R. and K. Rolley 1997. *****˜(Ad)dressing the Dyke: Lesbian looks and lesbians looking***** in, M. Nava et al eds. Buy this Book: Studies in Advertising and Consumption. London: Routledge

Lesbian visual pleasure and female fashion magazines.

McRobbie, A. 1997. *****˜Bridging the gap: feminism, fashion and consumption***** in Feminist Review 55

Examines the way in which many women are financially excluded from fashion consumption and exploited in its production.

â–ºMiles, S. 1998. *****˜Consuming fashion***** in S. Miles Consumerism as a Way of Life London: *****

Very useful short overview of some of the key approaches to fashion consumption.

Miller, J. 2002. Beauty and Democratic Power, in Fashion Theory 6 (3)

Short, useful, discussion of the politics of beauty and *****˜sexy***** dressing.

Tickner, L. 1977. *****˜Women and trousers***** in Leisure in the Twentieth Century: Fourteen Papers given at the Second Conference on Twentieth Century Design History London: Design Council Publications

How trousers ceased to be an emblem of masculinity

Rouse, E. 1989. Understanding Fashion Oxford: Blackwell (Chapters 5-10)

Useful social history of women*****s fashion from the Victorian period to the eighties.

Wilson, E. 1985. *****˜Utopian dress and dress reform***** and *****˜Feminism and fashion***** both in E. Wilson Adorned in Dreams: Fashion and Modernity London: Virago

Brief history of C19 attempts to abolish fashion and rejection of the feminist critique of fashion.

Wilson, E. and Taylor, L. 1989. *****˜Down with frou frou***** in E. Wilson and L. Taylor Through the Looking Glass. London: BBC Books

The C19 abandonment of corsets and the tentative emergence of women in trousers.

Wright, E. 1989. *****˜Objectifying gender: the stiletto heel***** in J. Attfield and P. Kirkham eds., A View from the Interior: Feminism, Women and Design London: Women*****s Press

The ambiguous sexual politics of the stiletto heel.

WEEK 9 Producing fashion

Craik, J. 1994. The Face of Fashion: Cultural Studies in Fashion London: Routledge

Multi-perspectival study of fashion, focusing on questions of gender; sceptical of assertions that fashion is - per se - exploitative.

Entwistle, J 2000 *****˜The Fashion Industry*****, in The Fashioned Body. Cambridge: Polity.

Accessible overview of many issues related to fashion production.

Green, N. 1997 The Sweatshop as Workplace and Metaphor, in N. Green Ready to Wear and Ready to Work London: Duke University Press

Excellent historical discussion of the persistence of the sweat shop in the fashion industry.

Ewing, E. (2001) History of 20th century Fashion. London: Batsford.

Accessible history of British fashion and the British fashion industry

Fashion victims. The True Cost of Cheap Clothes at Primark, Asda and Tesco. 2006. London, War on Want.

Klein, N. 2000 No Logo. London: Flamingo.

Influential and highly readable text on the forces of globalization and more specifically as impacting practices in the field of production of fashion.

Nixon, S. 1997. *****˜Circulating Culture*****, in Du Gay ed. Production of Culture/Cultures of Production. London: *****.

Not fashion focused but a useful analysis of how advertising adds cultural meanings to goods.

Phizacklea, A. 1990 Unpacking the Fashion Industry: Gender, Racism and Class in Production London: Routledge

Detailed analysis of *****˜sweated***** labour in fashion production, also worth reading for the insight it offers into the industrial structure of British fashion production.

Ross, A. ed. 1997. No Sweat: Fashion, Free Trade and the Rights of Garment Workers London: Verso

Highly accessible and wide ranging collection examining the use of *****˜sweated***** labour in fashion production.

â–ºRouse, E. 1989. *****˜Fashion for all*****, in Understanding Fashion Oxford: Blackwell (Chapter 11)

The production of the mass market for fashion.

Wilson, E. (2003) *****˜The Fashion Industry*****, in Wilson Adorned in Dreams. London: Virago

Short, useful overview of the historical development of the fashion industry

Week 10 Globalisation, nation and ethnicity

Crewe, L. and Goodrum, A. (2000) *****˜Fashioning New Forms of Consumption*****, in Bruzzi, S. and Church Gibson, P. (eds) Fashion Cultures. London: Routledge.

Crewe, L. and Lowe, M. 1996 United Colours? Globalization and localization tendencies in Fashion Retailing, in N. Wrigley and M. Lowe (eds). Retailing, Consumption and Capital: Towards the New Retail Geography Harlow: Longman

Useful introduction to issues of globalization (and localisation) in the fashion industry.

Eicher, J. E. and Sumberg, E. (1995) *****˜World Fashion, Ethnic and National Dress*****, in J.B. Eicher (ed.) Dress and Ethnicity. Oxford: Berg.

Very short, very clear, discussion of the terms in the title, clarifying the significant differences between these.

Dickerson, K.G. (1999) Textiles and Apparel in the Global Economy. Upper Saddle

River: Prentice-Hall.

Detailed study of the global textile and apparel industry.

Goodrun, A. (2005) The National Fabric: Fashion, Britishness, Globalization. Oxford: Berg.

Useful study of the specificity of British dresss in the context of globalisation.

Kondo, D. 1995 *****˜The Aesthetics and Politics of Japanese Identity in the Fashion Industry*****, in Roach-Higgins et al. (eds) Dress and Identity. New York: Fairchild.

Kondo, D. 1997 About Face. London: Routledge

Both of the above have interesting discussions of the links between Japanese identity, culture and fashion in the context of globalisation.

Lury, C. (2004) Brands: The Logos of the Global Economy. London: Routledge.

â–ºMaynard, M. 2004 *****˜Theorising Global Dress*****, in Dress and Globalisation. Manchester University Press.

The entire book is an invaluable and accessible overview of fashion and globalisation, this chapter provides a clear introduction.

Nakagawa, S and Rosovsky, H/ 1995 *****˜The Case of the Dying Kimono*****, in Roach-Higgins et al. (eds) Dress and Identity. New York: Fairchild

Niessen, S. et al. (eds) 2003 Re-Orienting Fashion. Oxford: Berg.

Wide ranging collection of essays exploring the globalisation of Asian Dress.

Rabine, L. (2002) The Global Circulation of African Fashion. Oxford: Berg

Stimulating discussion of the flow of fashion commodities in the global economy.

Robertson, R. (1998) Globalization. London: *****

Influential theory of globalization.

Skoggard, I (1998) *****˜Transnational Commodity Flows and the Global Phenomenon of the Brand***** in Brydon, A. and Niessen, S. (1998) eds Consuming Fashion. Oxford: Berg.

Taylor, L. 2000 The Hilfiger Factor and the Flexible Commercial World of Couture, in, N. White and I. Griffiths The Fashion Business: Theory, Practice, Image Oxford: Berg

The reorganisation of the couture industry in the face of the rise of the global fashion brand.

Waters, M. (1996) Globalization. London: Routledge.

Discussion of the key debates on globalization.

WEEK 11 Haute couture vs. mass fashion

â–ºBraham, P. 1997. *****˜Fashion: unpacking a cultural production***** in du Gay, P. ed. Production of Culture/Cultures of Production London: *****

Invaluable study of the production and consumption of clothing commodities.

Crane, D. 2000 Fashion Worlds and Global Markets: From *****˜Class***** to *****˜Consumer***** Fashion, in D. Crane Fashion and its Social Agendas: Class Gender and Identity in Clothing Chicago: Chicago University Press

The increasing diversification and complexity of fashion and its role in lifestyle and identity.

Davis, F. 1992. *****˜Fashion as cycle, fashion as process. Stages of the fashion process***** in F. Davies Fashion, Culture and Identity Chicago: University of Chicago Press

How do clothes become, and cease to be, fashionable?

de Marly, D. (1980) Worth: Father of Haute Couture. London: Elm Tree Books.

Lively and engaging biography of Worth and the birth of Paris haute couture.

Evans. C. 1997. *****˜Dreams that only money can buy... or, the shy tribe in flight from discourse***** Fashion Theory 1 (2)

Highly recommended overview of debates around youth subcultures and the specificity of these in the 1990s.

Evans, C. 1997. Street Style, Subculture and Subversion. in Costume Vol 31 pp 105-110

Short, useful, discussion of the changing nature of subculture, with particular reference to rave culture.

Fine, B. and Leopold, E. 1993. *****˜Systems of provision in food and clothing***** in B. Fine and E. Leopold The World of Consumption London: Routledge

Economic history of the production and marketing of fashion.

Godley, A. 1996 The Emergence of Mass Production in the U.K. Clothing Industry, in I. M. Taplin and J. Winterton Restructuring Within a Labour Intensive Industry: The UK Clothing Industry in Transition Aldershot: Avebury

Short and straightforward account of the emergence of mass production in the manufacture of clothes at the end of the 19th century

Leopold, E. 1992. *****˜The manufacture of the fashion system***** in J. Ash and E. Wilson eds., Chic Thrills London: Pandora

The development of mass market fashion production.

Lipovetsky, G. 1994. *****˜The enchantment of appearances***** in G. Lipovetsky The Empire of Fashion Princeton: Princeton University Press

Detailed history of fashion moving from its emergence in C14 through to the decline of the influence of haute couture and the pluralism of today.

Tarrant, N. 1994. *****˜Ready made clothes***** in N. Tarrant The Development of Costume London: Routledge

Straightforward narrative history of the development of the ready made clothing sector.

Wark, M. 1991. *****˜Fashioning the future: fashion, clothing, and the manufacture of post fordist culture***** in Cultural Studies 5 (1)

The reorganisation of fashion production and markets - away from mass production and towards a more flexible consumer led mode.

Wark, M. 1997. *****˜Fashion as a culture industry***** in A. Ross. ed. No Sweat: Fashion, Free Trade and the Rights of Garment Workers London: Verso

Flexible specialisation in the global fashion industry.

Wilson, E. 1985. *****˜The Fashion Industry***** in E. Wilson Adorned in Dreams: Fashion and Modernity London: Virago

Short, useful, overview of the historical development of the fashion industry

Wilson, E. and Taylor, L. 1989. *****˜Style for all. 1960-1990***** in E. Wilson and L. Taylor Through the Looking Glass London: BBC Books

The shift from the look to looks.

WEEK 12 and 13 Postmodernism

Appignanesi, R. and Garrett, C. 1999. Introducing Postmodernism Cambridge: Icon

Part of the famous *****˜Introducing***** comic book series: witty, comprehensive and very readable

Barnard, M. 1996. Fashion, Clothing and Postmodernity, in M. Barnard Fashion as Communication London: Routledge

Short examination of aspects of postmodernism in relation to fashion.

Berthens, H. 1995. The Idea of the Postmodern: A History London: Routledge

Admirably clear account of the issues, movements and events associated with the term.

Kaiser, S. 1999. *****˜Identity, postmodernity, and the global apparel marketplace***** in M. Damhorst, K. Miller, and S. Michelman (eds). The Meanings of Dress New York: Fairchild.

Short discussion of the relationship between fashion choices and identity in the context of postmodernism and globalisation.

â–ºKratz, C. and Reimer, B. 1998 Fashion in the Face of Postmodernity, in A. A. Berger (ed) The Postmodern Presence: Readings on Postmodernism in American Culture and Society ***** Creek, CA: AltaMira Press

Useful and accessible introduction to the manner in which postmodernism has impacted on fashion and the role that fashion plays in our lives

Muggleton, D. 2000 Inside Subculture: The Postmodern Meaning of Style Oxford: Berg

Subcultures reconsidered in the light of postmodernism.

Wilson, E. 1990. *****˜These new components of the spectacle: fashion and postmodernism***** in R. Boyne and A. Rattansi eds. Postmodernism and Society London: Macmillan

What light do theories of fashion and postmodernism shed on each other?

â–ºWilson, E. 1992. *****˜Fashion and the postmodern body***** in J. Ash and E. Wilson eds., Chic Thrills London: Pandora

Situates fashion in debates around postmodernism and argues it is one of those practices through which we perform our selves.

*****

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