Term Paper on "Developmental Counseling With Children"

Term Paper 6 pages (1963 words) Sources: 0

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Developmental Counseling With Children

First, the process of social cognitive development is discussed. Next, some important developmental social skills issues are addressed as they relate to three specific stages of development: early child- hood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Three separate children were observed over a period of 2 to 3 hours each, and the above mentioned areas were analyzed in each child. Other areas observed were play, interaction, socialization patterns, problem solving skills/strategies, their support systems and resources, motivation for learning and their developmental focus.

Sonny was a 4-year-old boy. (Caucasian) - Early Childhood Development Stage.

Jack was a 9-year-old boy (African-American) - Middle Childhood Development Stage.

Walter was a 14-year-old teenager (Caucasian) - Adolescence Development Stage.

The Process of Social Cognitive Development

Of all the areas of child development, social cognitive development is perhaps the most directly linked and critical to the acquisition and performance of social skills. Stated simply, social cognitive development is the process whereby changes in cognitive functioning allow the developing child to engage in a hierarchy of increasingly complex and potentially meaningful interactions with other persons. The process of social cognitive development may be considered a specific application of the social cognitive theory proposed by Bandura (1986), as typified by his influential book, Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Bandura suggested that the nature of social cognitive development may be explained in terms of five basic human capabilities: symbolizing, forethought, vicarious, self-regulatory, and self-reflective capabilities.

Symbolizing capability involves the use of various symbols, including language, as a means of altering and adapting to different environments. The use of symbols allows communication with others, even at distant times or places. Forethought capability projects anticipation of likely consequences of behavior and is demonstrated by intentional and purposeful actions that are future oriented. Vicarious capability allows that not all learning must result from direct experience, but can occur through the observation of other persons' behaviors and the consequences that follow them. Self-regulatory capability affects the development of our own internal standards and self-evaluative reactions to our behavior. Thus discrepancies between our internal standards and our actual behaviors serve to govern our future behavior. Self-reflective capability is concerned with self-consciousness, or the human ability to think about and evaluate our own thought processes. Together, these five fundamental human capabilities form the basis for our vast human potential and help explain to the inner workings that result in our behavioral output.

Observational learning is an essential part of social cognitive development. Its most elemental form is best understood as the process whereby we develop the capability to perform new behaviors through paying attention to models, retaining in memory what we observe, exercising the physical and cognitive ability to perform the new behavior, and having the motivation to do so. Another essential part of Bandura's social cognitive theory is the process of triadic reciprocality, which is best explained as a conception of human behavior development wherein the causes of behavior become influenced and shaped by the behavior itself

There are three different influences or parts of the triad exist: the person, the behavior, and the environment. Each part makes a unique contribution to development, and the strength of each part may change over time. For example, a child might be born with a biologically based, highly sensitive temperament whereby unfamiliar stimuli are perceived as aversive (the person variable). The child may then adopt a behavioral style of inhibition and avoidance to new situations and persons (the behavior variable). The environment sought out by the child selectively becomes one in which fewer opportunities for social interaction exist, and other persons within the environment may then ignore or avoid the child (the environment variable). As a result of these mutually influential processes, the child may develop a withdrawn and socially isolated pattern of behavior and become deficient in basic social skills. Moreover, in a sometimes insidious process, the three variables may continue to shape each other and serve to strengthen the behavioral/personality style, even if it is maladaptive.

Social Skills Development during Early Childhood

For the purposes of this discussion, the early childhood developmental period can be seen to extend from about age 3 years to about the end of kindergarten or beginning of first grade, which is normally age 6 or 7. Cognitively, preschool and kindergarten age children are the preoperational stage. At this stage the child represents things with words and images but lacks logical reasoning ability. Preoperational children are easily confused by distinctions between reality and appearance and find it easier to follow positive instructions ("stay on the sidewalk") rather than negative instructions ("don't go in the street"). They tend to be egocentric, which means they may have difficulty understanding the perspective or experience of another person. Preoperational children often focus on just one aspect of a problem while neglecting other important aspects, a tendency Piaget referred to as centration. Memory retrieval strategies are typically not well developed during this stage. The child may have difficulty in some contexts understanding that actions can be reversed. The preconventional moral reasoning of children in this age range is characterized by considering actions right or wrong only in terms of the immediate consequences that such actions bring. During early childhood, a wide range of emotions may be experienced, but typically, these can be described by the child only along a limited number of dimensions (e.g., happy or sad, good or bad, mean or nice). In discussing psychosocial development during early childhood, the development of autonomy or increasing independence from parents as a crucial factor, with maladaptive development resulting in guilt and shame.

In terms of specific social skills, it has been demonstrated that children increase rapidly in their ability to understand cognitions and emotions of others, even during the preschool years, even though the preoperational nature of preschool cognitive development puts some natural limits on what is possible. In terms of friendship characteristics and activities during early childhood, there is a gradual shift from parallel play to coordinated play, which requires more skill but is also more satisfying socially. The highest level of coordinated play is nonstereotyped fantasy play, a level that provides a means for practicing social roles and a possible way to resolve some fears. The theme of play in early childhood friendships can be summarized as the maximization of excitement, entertainment, and affect during play. Finally, friendships during early childhood are mostly transitory. Young children tend to define friends on the basis of playing together, physical proximity, and common expectations, activities, and possessions.

Social Skills Development during Middle Childhood

The period of middle childhood begins about the time a child enters first grade and extends into early adolescence. Agewise, we consider this period to extend from about age 7 to 13 years. From a developmental theory framework, children at this age level are in the concrete operations stage of cognitive development. This stage is characterized by the ability to use simple logic, but mental operations are performed only on images of tangible objects and actual events. In other words, the ability for abstract symbolic thinking is usually not yet developed.

During the concrete operations stage, many principles are mastered that were formerly elusive to the preschool-age child. Reversibility (observing that an action may be reversible), decentration (focusing on objects or tasks holistically rather than on one part only), and conservation (understanding that a change in appearance does not always constitute a change in quantity) are perhaps the best known of the concrete operational skills newly acquired at this stage.

Social development during middle childhood is characterized by learning to function beyond the family in a broader social context. In psychosocial terms this stage is referred to as industry vs. inferiority, a stage that refers to development alternating between self competence based on mastery of these new challenges and feelings of low self-esteem based on failure. Most elementary-age children make moral decisions with more complexity than they did during early childhood. These children reach a stage referred to as conventional morality, wherein rules and social conventions become more important in the decision-making process than just the immediate consequences of actions. Entrance into the elementary school opens up an increasingly complex social world. Children begin to form peer groups that differ in social status and power. The use of humor, gossip, negative evaluation, and teasing increase.

Social Skills Development during Adolescence

As typically defined, adolescence begins at about age 13 (12 to 14) years and ends at about the time that adult responsibilities are assumed. Obviously, great individual variation exists when the latter stages of adolescence are reached. Some individuals may assume many adult responsibilities and become relatively independent by age 17, whereas others may continue to be partially or fully dependent on their parents well into chronological adulthood. Social skills development during adolescence is characterized by the increasing complexity of social expectations, demands, and abilities. As their cognitive and social capabilities mature, adolescents become capable of a higher level of cognitive and emotional perspective-taking. These advanced cognitive-emotional skills attained by many… READ MORE

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