Thesis on "Inner City Adolescents"

Thesis 10 pages (3208 words) Sources: 10

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Custodial Grandparents

The Effect of Family Structure on the Mental Health and Educational Implications of Adolescents from High-Risk Neighborhoods, with Special Emphasis on Custodial Grandparents.

Because of the United States' impressive diversity, it is not surprising to realize that family structures vary greatly across the country, especially in urban centers. While different family structures must be recognized as legitimate, in order to empower their caretakers to raise children, it is important for sociologists, psychologists, those in the educational field, and others to understand that certain family structures may be associated with certain negative trends. Understanding these associations gives social service workers the ability to prevent such negative events from happening in the lives of adolescents and children in the inner city. A potent example of the association between family structure and negative trends can be seen with regards to the subject of substance abuse. A problem that is rampant among urban teenagers, substance abuse can lead to a variety of negative affects for the adolescent user, including dropping out of high school, pregnancy, and problems with relationships (Hoffmann and Johnson, 1998). While many variables impact an adolescent's decision to use drugs, Hoffmann and Johnson (1998) found that family structure was certainly associated with the substance abuse in teenagers. In fact, the researchers found that teenagers in father-custody families -- single parent father families or families in which a father and stepmother parent together -- tend to fall to substance abuse at a greater number than those in other family constructions. In fact, Hoffmann and Johnson (1998) generalize, "adolescents who reside with their mothers fare better than those who reside with their fathers in both single-parent and stepparent families" (pg. 634). Because they were unable to find other factors that served as an explanation for this connection, variables such as residential mobility and socioeconomic status, the researchers made the argument that family structure helps explain teens' decisions to become involved in drugs is more credible. Because of the author's research, further studies into the connection between negative adolescent behavior or challenges faced by adolescents and family structure must be conducted.

Focusing on the inner city as the arena in which to examine the challenges faced by adolescents and their respective family structures is a prudent idea for a variety of reasons. Logistically, better results are likely to be obtained through the comparison of teens in the inner city because the inner city tends to be more diverse, offering researchers children from a number of ethnic backgrounds and family structures. In addition, the environment is one that can be kept constant if only inner city adolescents are measured. Further, focusing on family structure in the inner city will provide real data for school counselors and other social service providers who would like to make an attempt at helping students facing difficult challenges. Although it is important that research considering all types of family structures be conducted in order to determine which structures inherently foster positive affects and which foster negative, Hoffmann and Johnson (1998) remark that, since few families in which fathers are guardians exist, little research had been done regarding the structure before their study. Far more prevalent than the father-headed home is the grandparent-headed family. Oliver (2008) writes that the number of grandparents heading homes and caring for their grandchildren on a full-time basis has witnessed a significant increase in the recent future across ethnic lines. In the United States today, around seven percent of children are raised by grandparents (with or without the aid of another parent), and the number of children being raised by grandparents skyrocketed between the years of 1980 and 1994, increasing by around 40%. About one-tenth of grandparents in the United States will become involved in the raising of grandchildren under the age of 18 for at least six months during their lives, and close to two and a half million grandparents in the United States are considered to be "raising" their grandchildren (Minkler and Thomspon, 2005; Oliver, 2008).

But despite the fact that this trend has grown for those in a variety of different cultural and ethnic situations, the number of African-American grandparents who raise their children are disproportionately higher than the rest. A variety of variables accounts for this interesting situation. A cultural component may exist, as African-Americans tend to have relationships in which extended family are a greater part of their lives, suggesting that the involvement of grandparents in the children's lives is more normal. However, other causes for grandparents becoming involved in the lives of children include substance abuse on the part of the mother or father, in addition to other problems that make parenting impossible or difficult for biological parents (Oliver, 2008). Indeed, Oliver (2008) found that grandparents most often care for their grandchildren when the biological mothers have neglected or abused them due to drug problems. Among the causes of grandparent-headed families listed by Oliver are teenage parents who are unable to care for their children, unemployment on the part of parents, and parents who lack parenting skills. Although they can be grandfathers, grandmothers are generally the ones tasked with taking on the burden of grandchildren, and many do so in the event that biological parents cannot take care of them. In addition, there are several forms of grandparent-headed families. First, grandparents can be the custodial parents, meaning that they are raising their grandchildren the way a parent would traditional raise his or her children. Second, grandparents can act as co-parents with a biological parent, a situation in which they live with their children and help them care for grandchildren. Finally, there are grandparents who have no care giving duties. Within this category fall grandparents who serve as childcare providers for their children. While the grandparents may care for children while their parent or parents are working, they return the children to their parents' homes and generally have no responsibilities as to parenting decisions. It is also possible for grandparents to live with their grandchildren without undertaking any parenting roles (Oliver, 2008).

According to Oliver (2008) the increase in grandparent-headed families is due in part to the ability of families to make informal arrangements for children who are not receiving an adequate level of care with their biological parents, rather than using Child Protective Services to accomplish this. Because of the negative reasons that lead to grandparent-headed families, the fact that many African-American grandparent headed families suffer from poverty without the ability to receive special assistance for their custodial grandchild, and the age difference between grandchildren and grandparents, grandparent-headed families often face significant challenges just because of their family structure. Oliver (2008), however, suggests the importance of studying these structural families: "The increase in these formal and informal kinship placements has increased the recognition and importance of GHF [grandparent-headed families] in scholarly literature" (pg. 45). Further, "Grandparents may be particularly good custodial resources for children whose biological parents are unable to raise them, as these grandparents may be one of the few constants in the lives of children exposed to family disruption," suggesting that more information into the family structure is of the utmost importance at a time when it is becoming more popular and is also needed more than ever (Oliver, 2008). Through an examination of three specific challenges faced by inner city African-Americans living in a grandparent-headed family structure -- challenges faced by grandparents and their grandchildren -- implications for school counselors and educational involvement as a solution to this problem can be found. In addition, suggestions for further research into the inherent problems found in certain family structures will be offered.

I. Challenges Faced By Grandparents

For some grandparents, raising grandchildren promotes unequivocal joy. Fuller-Thompson and Minkler (2000) found that custodial grandparenting was associated with several rewards, like "keeping the family together" (pg. 110). Oliver (1998) writes, "There are reports that becoming a caregiver to one's grandchildren provides a purpose for living, increases love and companionship, feelings of being appreciated, hope for the future, and satisfaction of helping others (pg. 46). Nevertheless, being a custodial grandparent is associated with many stressors that can lead to challenges these families must overcome. In their longitudinal study, Minkler and Fuller (2005) found that over 500,000 African-American grandparents aged 45 and over were raising grandchildren in 2000. They tended to be female, living in poverty, and less educated than grandfathers raising grandchildren or other African-American women aged 45 and older. Indeed, the researchers found that four-fifths of African-American grandmothers caring for grandchildren were living below the poverty line. Oliver (2008) points out that a grandparent responsible for raising his or her grandchildren can experience emotional, physical, and financial stress" (pg. 46). Indeed, becoming a parent again, which is essentially the case in a grandparent-headed family, can be quite difficult for a person who is at a stage in life when parenting should be complete. Fuller-Thompson and Minkler (2000) found that grandparents acting as parents were faced with a host of psychological and physical health problems in disproportionate rates than their… READ MORE

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