Literature Review on "Emergency Response"

Literature Review 12 pages (5716 words) Sources: 12 Style: Harvard

[EXCERPT] . . . .

In regards to social vulnerabilities, many communities are inherently unprepared to for most of the potential threats that loom. As a result, without a plan in place, it can lead to a state of desperation in the event of a crisis. However, when the community is prepared then it can mount a unified response that can effectively and efficiently mitigate the effects of the disaster.

2.2.3 Emergency Preparedness

Emergency Management consists of a number of stages; mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. These phases are cyclical in nature because the practice of emergency management is cyclical as well. An emergency management professional is perpetually engaged in one of the four phases. Even if there is a crisis and it is successfully mitigated, then there could be another incident just around the corner. There are risks everywhere -- both natural and manmade. Therefore the process of emergency management is perpetual preparedness- is a process that is never completed. Comment by lsx934: So- preparedness or management?

Figure 1 - Emergency Management Phases (Upper Valley, N.d.)

Consequence management focuses on the consequence that will occur given any significant emergency. Considering the consequences of various risks is another method of disaster preparedness. Thus identifying the consequences of outcomes first, this can assist an emergency management professional to be better prepared for emergency preparedness in all four phases of the cycle -- preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation. Only after the consequence of a risk is successfully outlined can it effectively be prepared for. Consequence management is closely related to risk management, however both perspectives need to be integrated to create a more holistic and comprehensive disaster preparedness plan that can create resilient organizations and communities.

Many Mmoodern risks have a many consequences associated with them that require many institutions to respond. These threats include such items as cyber-crime, identity theft, changing immigration laws, new forms of drugs and drug abuse, corruption, environmental degradation as well as a plethora of other modern issues. However, among the most salient of the issues is definitely the threat of terrorist activities. Many salient terrorist activities occur in the regional area and could significantly impact the Omani people either directly or indirectly. Fig 2 below shows some terrorist activities that have occurred in other countries including some that are in the proximal region..

Figure 2 - Terrorist Incidents (RAND, 2011)

2.2.4 Resilience

A disaster management plan begins with the goal of mitigating the emergency as much as possible despite the type of disaster present (Warfield, 2002). Risk identification is determined by the possibility that the emergency will occur and the probability of the occurrence, as well as the potential impacts that such a scenario may create (USBR, N.d.). The ability of a community to mitigate the manifestation occurrence or consequences of risk situations can be defined as their ability for resilience. A resilient community will overcome challenges from risk manifestations in a collective and holistic manner that inherently depends on preparedness.

The various emergency scenarios may be classified under three different categories; natural, technological, and social. They may further be classified by utilizing a PESTEL framework; this includes the political, economic, social, technological, environmental, legal, and natural. These frameworks can serve as a foundation in which to map out potential risks that can are salient to any community. This allows for various communities to become resilient through effective planning.

Mapping the various factors that are involved with any potential risk can provide a clear overview of the mitigation strategies needed (Michigan University, N.d.). In the event of an emergency, this tool can also serve as a quick dashboard or a plan of action that can great expedite the response when an emergency occurs. Loss estimation is also such a critical component of emergency preparedness that researchers are currently researching the topic and trying to create models that can access damages in real time (Eguchi, et al., 1997). Jim Truscott of the Truscott Crisis Leaders organization poses the problems and potential solutions in this frameframework? (Truscott, 2013)

"What is the best combination of management disciplines to achieve resilience in Oman? How do you make your organization in Oman, anti-fragile?"

Truscott explains that building resilience is more than just having a documented plan. To truly build resilience in a community there must be a dimension of resilience embedded in the culture and in the attitudes of the individuals. Resilience serves as the cornerstone of a strategy that allows organizations of differing sizes to collaborate in their responses and cooperate with external parties. Organizations can consist of a group as small as a family to those much larger such as government or larger businesses.

The general view is that resilience is as much an attitudinal or cultural approach as it is hands on management. That is, resilience is as much a state of mind as it is documentation. There is agreement that organizations become resilient when they put people first, when they have diversity available as part of the organizational model, and when they coordinate effectively with external parties. This attitudinal approach to shock proofing leads to sector wide responses in communities and business cooperation of a kind in the market place as a normal strategy. It is the drawbridge, moat, castle and network of castles approach to prevention, planning, response and recovery. This is the domain of the risk register, the business impact analysis and the security threat assessment, all basic tools for crisis management, at any level from household to nation state. Such thinking and action also enables effective approaches to horrific scale disasters such as from pandemics which have impacts across all sectors. The tipping point expression is now part of resilience jargon. It comes from epidemiology and it describes the multiple points of failure, all independent, that a pandemic has across sectors. Some governments now embrace cross sector planning as normal."

Truscott's, and many others working in this fieldin the literature, now espouse a holistic and integrated approach to risk planning, risk management, and resilience.

2.2.5 Community resilience

Community Resilience is a concept that builds on the independent organizational perspective and looks at resilience from an integrated and broader level. This perspective generally integrates a more comprehensive loss accounting method that accounts for all aspects of the risk. Yet this task can be extremely difficult because it will be based off on subjective interpretations of potential losses. However, if a loss estimation plan can also be valuable because it can highlight some of the more vulnerable areas of a community. Here I am a little confused as my understanding of community resilience is not really linked to loss accounting?

There are three primary categories of different types of losses; loss of life or injured people, the loss of physical capital and buildings, and economic losses or losses to the communities businesses revenue streams (Lopez, 2009). A central monitoring crew should be initiated immediately to monitor the progress of the response. This allows for a team to have knowledge of the entire response effort so that they can coordinate different efforts effectively. Without centralization then the response can be fragmented and inefficient (Tudor, 2012). Thus to create resilient community centralisation of responses is considered a necessary step. Oh OK Comment by lsx934: I don't like this word, a bit too naval

2.2.6 Vulnerability

Vulnerability drives the ultimate impact of disasters and illustrates that society can indeed be affected on all levels by disasters from natural hazards through a combination of physical, economic, social, and political effects. FEMA (2001) planning guidance defines vulnerability as 'the exposure and susceptibility of a given asset to damage based upon construction, contents, and economic value'. Vulnerability is the likelihood of a population to be negatively affected by disasters caused by social, cultural, political, and economic factors (Buckle, 1995). Economic impact is the losses from the disaster as well as the financial cost to rebuild. Social vulnerability includes the impacts to the social structure such as injury and death, demographics, and the psychological effects on the populous. Political influence can be either positive or negative. If response and recovery are handled proficiently, politicians will be commended; however, if these operations are handled poorly, the politicians will be the first blamed. Physical vulnerability is the susceptibility of buildings, the infrastructure, and homes as well as geographic location in relation to the hazard. This includes the environmental impact from debris and pollutants such as with sewage leaks.sources?

2.3 EFFECTIVE EMERGENCY MManagement

To guarantee the effectiveness of emergency management relies on the complete integration of contingency plans at every level of government and civil society bodies. Activities at each level (individual, group, community) affect the other levels. It is common that the responsibility of managing an emergency in government institutions are located in civil defense or between the conventional structure of the emergency services. However, emergency management really starts at the lowest level and other levels only up after finishingand builds on the availability of organizational resources at these levels. In the… READ MORE

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