Research Paper on "Codeswitching Code Switching -- How Many Grammars?"

Research Paper 14 pages (3716 words) Sources: 20

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Codeswitching

Code Switching -- How many grammars?

Language Contact

Lexical Borrowing

Code Switching

Types of Code Switching

Grammar of Intrasentential Code Switching

Theory of One Grammar

Theory of Two Grammar

Theorie of Three Grammar

According to Winford (2003:2) "Whenever people speaking different languages come into contact, there is a natural tendency for them to seek ways of bypassing the communicative barriers facing them by seeking compromise between their forms of speech." While these forms of compromise might be seen as language deficits by some, Winford (2003:2) suggests that they are actually creative ways for speakers of different languages to effectively communicate. MacSwan (2000:37) asks the question, "How does the mind represent two (or more) languages?" And suggests that "the answer to this basic question has implications for linguistics, education, developmental psychology, and the general cognitive sciences."

This article is organized as follows. I begin with an explanation of language contact and the types of language mixing which include lexical borrowing and code switching. I will then continue with a more in depth explanation of the types of code switching -- tag-switching, intersentential switching and intrasentential switching. The various theories of the grammar of code switching are then discussed. I conclude with implications for further research.

2. Language Contact

The interaction of two or more languages or language varieties is known as language contact. Whenever different languages come into contact they will, in all probability influence each other. "Such contact can have a wide variety of linguistic outcomes," from lexical borrowing to "the creation of entirely new languages." (Winford 2003:2). This chapter will give a short overview of different types of language mixing, all of which involve language maintenance. Maintenance calls for small changes of the language, while "the various subsystems of the language -- the phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and core lexicon -- remain relatively intact." (Winford 2003:12).

2.1 Lexical Borrowing

One possible result of language contact is the integration of words from one language into a second one. "The borrowing language may be referred to as the recipient language and the foreign language as the source language "(Winford 2003:12). Lexemes of the source language are grammatically integrated into the recipient language and become part of the standard lexicon. Rather than a mix of two different languages lexical borrowing defines the establishment of lexical elements (Wiegand 2004:53). "Despite etymological identity with the donor language, established loanwords assume the morphological, syntactic, and often, phonological, identity of the recipient language"(Poplack 2001:2063). Lexical borrowing normally begins with speakers who are familiar with the source language. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowing language, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. At first the speakers may use the word only with other individuals who are familiar with the source language; however, as the loanwords are completely integrated into the host language borrowing is not restricted to multilingual speakers only, but can be found in the speech of monolingual speakers as well (Poplack 2001:2063).

In fact, Winford (2003:2) adds that lexical borrowing may occur without requiring speakers of different languages to actually come into contact with one another. Lexical borrowing results "through book learning by teachers, writers, lexicographers, and the like who pass on the new vocabulary to others via literature, religious texts, dictionaries, and so on" (Winford 2003:2). Gradually the word permeates the language and becomes familiar to more people. Eventually speakers of the borrowing language adapt the sound and other characteristics of the word to the borrowing language. This process is called conventionalism.

English Imperialism and the immigration of people from around the world into the United States have placed English speaking people in contact with many other languages, resulting in the English language borrowing many words from other languages. Many of these words are from European language such as: the French - ballet, champagne, quiche, bastion, cavalry, and garage; Spanish - armadillo, bravado, guitar, and tortilla; and the Italian - broccoli, casino, piano, opera, and umbrella. Additionally, English has borrowed words from: Sanskrit such as avatar and yoga; Hindi such as cummerbund and juggernaut; Chinese such as ginseng and kowtow; as well as Japanese words such as karaoke and sushi. This is but a small sampling of the impact that borrowed words have had on the English language.

2.2 Code Switching

Perhaps the most extraordinary result of language contact is known as Code Switching (CS). Cantone (2005:478) quoting Meisel, defines CS as 'the ability to select the language according to the interlocutor, the situational context, the topic of conversation, and so forth, and to change languages within an interactional sequence in accordance with sociolinguistic rules and without violating specific grammatical constraints'. According to Winford (2003:14) CS "involves the alternate use of two languages (or dialects) within the same stretch of speech, often within the same sentence." In other words: "The speaker stops using language A and uses language B, so that syntactic connections are now with items from the speaker's language-B system." (Clyne: 740).

It is uncontroversial that CS differs from the other major manifestation of language contact: lexical borrowing. Despite etymological identity with the donor language, established loanwords assume the morphological, syntactic, and often, phonological, identity of the recipient language. They tend to be recurrent in the speech of the individual and widespread across the community. The stock of established loanwords is available to monolingual speakers of the recipient language, along with the remainder of the recipient language lexicon. Loanwords further differ from CS in that there is no involvement of the morphology, syntax or phonology of the donor language (Poplack 2004)

The act of switching between two, or more, languages within a single sentence sometimes calls for a highly proficient speaker. MacSwan (2005:37) suggests that CS occurs most often with individuals who are simultaneously bilingual, meaning they learn both languages from infancy. Different from borrowing, either "morphology, syntax or phonology of the donor language" (Poplack 2004:3) is involved; nevertheless switched sentences do not include ungrammatical sentence fragments. The phenomenon of code switching therefore is said to mostly occur in the speech of competent bi-, or multilingual speakers. Winford (2003:14) explains that CS frequently occurs in bilingual communities and provides the following example from a 9-year-old Puerto Rican girl from Spanish Harlem, New York City. (The Spanish items are italicized).

Hey Lolita, but the Skylab, the Skylab no se cayo pa (-ra) que se acabe el mundo. It falls in pieces. Si se cae completo, yeah. The Skylab es una cosa que (e-)sta rodeando el moon taking pictures of it. Tiene tubos en el medio. Tiene tubos en el medio. It's like a rocket. It's like a rocket.

(Hey Lolita, but the Skylab, the Skylab ("didn't fall for the world to end"). It falls in pieces. ("If it falls whole"), yeah. The Skylab ("is something that's going around the") moon taking pictures of it. ("It has tubes in the middle") [repeated]. It's like a rocket [repeated]. (Winford 2003:14)

Winford (2003:14) explains that the girl switches the languages both between and with clauses. This represents inter- and intra- sentential code switching.

2.2.1 Types of Code Switching

Depending on 'where' and 'how' the switch occurs within the sentence CS can be classified into various types. The most prominent and commonly referred classification derived from Poplack's 1980 study. She identified three types of code switching: tag-switching, intersentential and intrasentential code switching.

Inserting a word or chunk of words of one language into an otherwise monolingual speech of another language is called Tag-Switching. Those words or utterances may include interjections, fillers, tags, and idiomatic expressions. All of which can be produced in L2 with only minimal knowledge of the grammar of that language (Poplack 1980:605). Without underlying many grammatical restrictions these utterances can occur at several points within a sentence. The phenomenon of tag-switching can therefore often be found among less proficient speakers of the second language.

If the speech alternates between two languages at sentence boundaries only it is defined as Intersential Code Switching. This means the switch can only occur between two sentences or sentence fragments, each of which is entirely produced in one language, namely the recipient language. Since a speaker must be able to recognize possible boundaries little more language skills are required if compared to tag-switching. Nevertheless, the phenomenon of Intersential CS occurs among speakers of all proficiency levels. (Poplack 1989)

Intrasentential Code Switching defines the alternate use of two or more languages within a single sentence, sentence fragments or even within a single word. The switch could possibly occur at any point within the utterance; yet, the important thing to note is that it does not seem to occur randomly. Several grammatical restrictions define where a switching of languages is allowed and where not. This kind of switching requires highly proficient language abilities and is almost exclusively found among bi- or multilingual speakers. "[T]he speaker must (…) know enough about the grammar of each language, and the way they interact, to avoid ungrammatical utterances" (Poplack 1980:605).

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