Term Paper on "History of Modern China"

Term Paper 7 pages (2083 words) Sources: 2 Style: MLA

[EXCERPT] . . . .

China New History

Over the 2000-plus years of Chinese history, the country has undergone numerous changes. Some of these have been momentous, with major cultural, social and political transitions. However, the nation has proven itself to be very adaptive to external pressures. Much of this change has come since the beginning of the modern China era, which many scholars stipulate began at the Taiping Rebellion. This was a very shaky time for China, and brought major changes into the 20th Century. However, it made it through all these major transitions.

During the 1850s, the East India Company was shipping millions of tons of opium into Canton, so that England could trade for Chinese manufactured goods and tea. This quickly led to a country filled with drug addicts and myriad of corresponding problems with addiction. To rectify the situation, the government made drug trafficking illegal in 1836, but the English made large bribes to the officials.

An officer named Lin Tse-hsu, who was appointed Imperial Commissioner, was greatly concerned about the opium. He began arresting known opium dealers in the local schools and naval barracks. He also consulted with local physicians, established a treatment center near Canton and encouraged opium addicts to enroll there -- under amnesty to break their habit. In addition, Tse-hsu sent messages to the foreign clipper ships that were smuggling in the opium and demanded they turn over all of the drugs they had aboard and any other drugs they have stored. He said that they would be totally cut off from trade if they did not comply. Although they turned in one/half a million pounds of opium, Tse-hsu did not believe that they would comply to the laws (Walker 7).

When a Chinese villager was killed by a group of drunken British seamen, who were not punished for the murder, Tse-hsu kept all food and drink away from the ships and freshwater springs used by the English were poisoned. The British successfully retaliated with warships and demanded Tse-hsu to be removed from office. The opium sales returned to normal (Walker 8)

In addition to the problems with the drug addiction and English, during the mid-1800s, China was hit by a number of different disasters, including droughts, famines, and floods that led to widespread poverty and illness. Part of the problem resulted from the government doing little to help with the socio-economic problems. The residents grew despondent and the increased unrest led to the Taiping Rebellion, a civil war that killed as many as 20 million people. The rebellion started in Southern China, which was an area that had never fully accepted the Qang government, was led by Hung H'siu Chuang. Not only did this revolution break the country away from the present government, it also ended thousands of years of traditions and opened the doors to new influences from the West (Smith 5-6).

The Taiping Rebellion completely altered the situation in China, by bringing it closer and closer to the rest of the world. Although very few people had heard of Karl Marx nor of Communism, their culture shared many of the same ideals. For example, the Taiping leaders had tried to develop a caste-free society based on egalitarian concepts, a primitive form of Communism. Under this structure, land was evenly distributed. Slavery, the sale of women, foot-binding, prostitution, arranged marriages and polygamy were banned. Similarly, the Taipings were considerably against opium, alcohol, and tobacco. However, more than anything, the Taiping Rebellion opened the doors to outside influences from the West (Shih 453).

According to Shih, although there were many different facets and inconsistencies to the Taiping ideology, these various aspects came together as a whole. This was especially due to the religious element that was such a major part of the organic quality of the structure. For example, he said, "The Land System of the Heavenly Dynasty," the most important of all Taiping documents, first lists political and military titles, then covers economic equality along with a land system and common sharing of goods, all based on the concept that the family of God is one. Next the publication mentions the Sabbath when men and women attend Sunday services in their segregated quarters. This is followed by the judiciary procedure, the system of reward and punishment, promotion and demotion, and the military organization. Finally, the document closes on a religious note. In other words, everything revolves around the religious life (xii).

Although there is agreement as to the importance of religion, the religion itself is debated. As Shih notes (xiii) the nature of Taiping Christianity is continually debated. He does not feel that one should call it either true or distorted Christianity, "for true Christianity can be defined only in a strictly circumscribed context." Although Taiping Christianity is not completely void of the traditional culture and ideas, it is quite close to orthodox belief. In other words, the Taipings' unenlightened minds must have recognized many of the scriptural texts in terms of their own background.

Reilly (11) agrees about the importance of the Christian religion to those in the Taiping government. He says that "close readings of the local religious context do help explain how certain elements, such as spirit possession, became so influential in the movement." However, these studies also almost completely ignored the Taipings desire to restore the Shangdi worship. "The most significant and influential Taiping documents are infused with distinctively Christian ideas and notions."

One of the reasons for this emphasis on Western religion, states Shih (p.xiii), was that the Taipings were consciously or unconsciously seeking something to take the place of their traditional beliefs that had been a part of the culture for such a long time and associated with past difficulties and control. Instead, they wanted a belief system with a positive perspective, allowing them to break the hold of the orthodox ideology on the peoples' minds so they could see straight for themselves without having their judgments warped by the official views. Christianity from the Western world seemed to the Taipings a God-sent gift to lift them out of the fatalistic abyss they were sunk in. This Christian element served as a means to unify the Taiping movement and to distinguish it from all previous rebellions that had religious elements as well.

However, it was not only the Western religion that was integrated into the Taipings' ideology. The official publications also included information in three categories: (1) enlightenment by culture, (2) rule by law, and (3) censure by punishment. The first category suggested banning traditional customs, such as bound feet, and suggests the creation of institutions for expanding social welfare, such as hospitals, churches, and schools. Also listed are the "useful" objects, which include many modern inventions, including steamships, trains, and clocks. Such items are of practical importance and can "broaden man's view and understanding" (Michael 749).

The second category of "rule by law" provides is not merely the understanding of an abstract system of rules. To lead others to the right way, it is necessary to simultaneously introduce education and law." The publications are concerned with the creation of a public opinion, which is based in part on a public press. Educated leaders have a special responsibility: "The framers of law must first of all be experienced and possess a thorough understanding of the nature of Heaven and man. They must be familiar with the customs and religions of the various countries" (Michael 750). Next, then are listed all foreign missionaries, foreign countries and their institutions.

The third category, "Censure by Punishment," is concerned with reconciling punishment of crime with the humane ideas that dictates fate. Here, the publications speak of good treatment and rehabilitation of prisoners. Capital punishment has to be reconciled with the sixth commandment. However, anyone who has been executed has not been executed by man but delivered to the Heavenly Father for punishment. He favors hanging, a procedure in which according to his interpretation the culprit strangles himself.

During this time, China also expanded its movement abroad to other Western nations (Panikkar 185). Anson Burlinghame, American Minister at Peking, was, on his retirement, appointed as a roving ambassador for China and accredited to all the Western courts. He first reached America with many joining him from China, and was well received. There, he negotiated a treaty on the basis of equality, which also included clauses upholding the territorial integrity of China and providing for reciprocal rights of trade and residence. Burlinghame knew the methods of Western diplomacy in respect to China; while in London, he asked for assurances that undue pressure would not be exercised to secure rights that infringed China's sovereignty. Unfortunately, before his mission could be completed, he died in St. Petersburg.

According to Panikkar (177), however, one should not be deceived that China was completely going over to a total Western existence.

The Taiping Rebellion was the most crucial in the history of China's relations with the West. The seeming prosperity of the country was deceptive, however. While the treaty ports… READ MORE

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