Essay on "Biomedical and Biopsychosocial Models of Health"

Essay 10 pages (3965 words) Sources: 1+

[EXCERPT] . . . .

To reduce the rates of transmission between heterosexual partners, this plan, unlike past programs, which have focused on educating women on how to use and how to obtain condoms, will teach women how to "be sexually assertive with respect to declining unwanted sex or initiating condom use" (Morokoff, et al., 2011, p. 276). Specific strategies will include empowering women to gain control over sexual activity through the use of the female condom as the male condom has been found to be largely male-controlled.

Prenatal HIV Transmission: under the proposed plan, counseling will be offered in all settings that offer care facilities to women - including drug abuse treatment facilities, mental health clinics, STD clinics, prenatal clinics, family planning clinics, and primary care facilities. Practitioners will be trained on how to provide voluntary testing programs as well as universal counseling services. Further, care and information providers will be educated on how to use sensitive strategies to asses patients' exposure risks by, for instance, examining their drug use and sexual risk behaviors (Walker, 2003). They will be taught how to design their strategies so that they are client-centered, linguistically-specific, developmentally-appropriate, sensitive to sexual identity issues, culturally-competent, and confidential. Women will be educated on, among other things, "how the administration of zidovudine (ZDV)…early in pregnancy can substantially reduce the rate of perinatal (sic) HIV transmission" (Morokoff, et al., 2011).

I estimate that the effective implementation of this plan could reduce the rates of HIV transmission among women in Franklin County by more than 3% annually.

Part Four: the Psychology of Drug Use and Addiction -- Presentation

Psychological Explanation for Drug Use and Addiction

Traditionally, psychologists held that drug use can best be explained through the 'reinforcement' effect -- that with repeated use, drugs and substances affect the dopamine system of the brain, making it unable to regulate emotional responses without the drug (APA, 2001). Continued use is then seen as the only way to acquire that 'emotional reinforcement or reward' that was initially availed by the dopamine system (APA, 2001).

Studies have, however, shown that drug use and addiction are more complex processes that go beyond the brain's ability to regulate emotion. Accordingly, psychologists have increasingly adopted the explanation that repeated substance abuse causes damage to the frontal cortex of the brain, which is responsible for regulating both emotional activities and cognitive activities such as response-inhibition and decision-making (APA, 2001). In this regard, drug use is taken to have an effect on the emotion-regulating system as well as the cognitive-regulating system of the brain. It is, therefore, regarded as both a behavioral and a pharmacological disease; and consequently, treatment for addiction has to focus on both of these aspects (APA, 2001).

This model of drug use provides a clearer framework for explaining why although a lot of people use drugs such as alcohol and cocaine, only a small proportion becomes addicted (APA, 2001). According to Dr. Herb Weingartner of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), whether or not one becomes addicted depends primarily on the degree to which their ability to control cognitive operations has been compromised (APA, 2001). Media influences, say advertisements for the drug, or public campaigns against the drug, therefore, have a negligible effect on drug use and addiction. This basically means that if an individual still has relatively strong control over their cognitive operations, no amount of advertising for the drug can drive them to compromise the same.

Health Hazards of Addiction

Drugs are psychoactive substances capable of altering behavior, cognition, and mood. They are classified into three major groups, depending on their effect on the central nervous system (CNS) -- i); depressants such as heroine and alcohol, which slow down CNS activity, creating feelings of reduced anxiety as well as relaxation' ii) stimulants such as cocaine and caffeine, which speed up CNS activity, causing paranoia, as well as increased feelings of well-being, confidence, and energy; and iii) hallucinogens, such as ketamine and PCP, which cause alterations in the perception of time and sensory experiences. This text focuses on the depressants category, which are associated with a number of health hazards, including the risk of permanent brain damage and sustained mental confusion; strokes and seizures; liver damage or failure; abdominal pain and vomiting, and a weakened immune system that is highly susceptible to infections.

Psychology-Based Treatments for Addiction

Addiction to drugs in the depressant category (alcohol and heroine) is treatable using psychological techniques, particularly because thoughts play a significant role in an individual's decision to engage in the same. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can be used to alter the way an individual thinks about these drugs. Through such therapy, the individual would be able to anticipate health problems associated with drug use, and to consequently develop appropriate coping mechanisms. Specific treatment techniques would include exploring the consequences of continued substance abuse and initiating self-monitoring strategies for recognizing and dealing with cravings and risk factors.

Part Five: Case Study: Eating Disorders

Carrie is at risk of developing bulimia nervosa, an eating disorder where one, having no control over their eating habits, experiences bingeing and purging episodes, where they overeat and then try to rid themselves of the extra calories through induced vomiting or excessive exercising (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Often times, this disorder is driven by an unhealthy obsession to maintain 'good' weight, and an attractive body shape (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Carrie's obsession in this case is driven by two crucial factors; i) her admiration for clothes and fashion magazines, and the thought that fashion suits thin and shapely people better than fat ones; and ii) the negativity of friends and family members about overweight and shapelessness.

Below are some of the red flags that the family/doctor ought to look out for to ascertain whether Carrie has indeed developed an eating disorder (Mayo Clinic, 2014):

Skipping meals or preferring to eat in secret

Food hoarding

Use of herbal products or dietary pills to facilitate weight loss

Frequent checking in the mirror to note the slightest gain in weight

Repeated complaints about being fat or overweight even after the doctor has acknowledged that they are of normal weight

Persistent worry about losing weight and staying in shape

Social withdrawal

Funny eating rituals

Eating only 'safe' foods more often those low in calories and fat

In diagnosing the disorder, the physician will check whether the patient meets the diagnostic criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistics Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), after which he/she will recommend one or more of these three treatment options:

i) Psychotherapy -- cognitive behavioral therapy, where the patient is taught how to substitute unhealthy eating habits for healthier ones, is quite common with bulimia nervosa (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Specific treatment strategies could include teaching the patient how to monitor their moods, how to deal with stressful situations, and how to keep their eating patterns in check (Mayo Clinic, 2014).

ii) Nutrition education -- giving the patient information on how to establish healthy eating habits, how to develop an eating plan, and how to eat healthy so as to maintain a healthy weight (Mayo Clinic, 2014).

iii) Medication -- anti-anxiety and anti-depressant medications could be administered to deal with anxiety and depression, and to consequently help the patient control any urge to binge (Mayo Clinic, 2014).

Part 6: Literature Review on the Psychology of Addiction

Effect of Addiction on Individual and Family

Researchers contend that addiction to substances such as alcohol and cocaine affects not only the individual, but also their family, their colleagues at work, and the society in general (Alavi, et al., 2012). Repeated substance use causes damage to the frontal cortex of the brain, affecting key vital functions including sleep, metabolism, appetite, and the body's ability to respond to stress. As a result, the individual is more at risk of falling into depression, having erratic energy levels, or experiencing a state of emotional imbalance. Addiction to alcohol causes extensive damage to the liver, making it more prone to failure. The burden of addiction extends beyond the individual -- families are forced to face legal and financial problems, as well as the risk of divorce and high exposure to violence. Cigarette smokers additionally expose their families, particularly children, to high risks of developing breathing complications and lung infections. Then there is the additional risk of such children developing feelings of ambivalence or anxiety, and lacking family and parental support necessary for effective development.

Psychological Theories of Addiction:

Psychologists have differed on what the exact cause of addiction is. One faction postulates that addiction, particularly substance addiction, is driven by some kind of abnormality/psychopathology that presents itself as a mental illness (Horvath, et al., 2014). Another group tends to think that people are influenced to engage in harmful behaviors by their external environments (Horvath, et al., 2014). However, another section of researchers opposes this claim, arguing that people engage in harmful behaviors primarily because their thoughts and beliefs drive them to. These three psychological theories have been discussed in the… READ MORE

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