Essay on "Addressing the Occupational Stress of Aviation Personnel"

Essay 11 pages (3705 words) Sources: 11 Style: Harvard

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Cultural Implications for Management

Shavitt, et al. (2012) explored the relation between cultural type and psychological processes. The dimensions of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism have implications for the ways employees perceive certain work demands. These dimensions are related to conformity of employees to the demands of their employers and new management strategies. This relationship is comprehensively outlined in the Curley and Royle (2013) case study on the changes brought by organized labour and the management of Aer Lingus.

Prior to embarking on a discussion of cultural perspectives of emotional labour and job stressors, it is worthwhile to consider the fundamentals of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism as they relate to psychological processes. Societies that are referred to as horizontal are understood to value equality, while societies that are called vertical are believed to be concerned with emphasizing hierarchy (Shavitt, et al., 2012). Cultures that are located on the same planes with respect to individualism or collectivism differ in important ways, one of which is the horizontal-vertical distinction. American, British, Danish, and Swedish cultures can all be said to represent individualism (Shavitt, et al., 2012). However, upon closer inspection, it is evident that the American or British version of individualism is quite different from that of the Danish or Swedish individualism (Shavitt, et al., 2012). And Korean or Japanese collectivism is different from the collectivism of the Israeli kibbutz (Shavitt, et al., 2012). Cultures or societies that promote the importance of individual status with citizens distinguishing them in substantive ways, include Great Britain, France, and the United States. In these countries, people are fairly focused on standing out in terms of achievement, competition, or power (Shavitt, et al., 2012). Countries such as Australia, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have developed societies that embrace horizontal-individualist culture, in which people consider themselves to be equals. They do not seek or simply eschew status differentiation, preferring to be seen as unique and, yet, still an important member of the crowd who is fully capable of being self-reliant (Shavitt, et al., 2012).

Countries like India, Japan, and Korea are vertical-collectivist societies or cultures whose members are most concerned with the group cohesion and complying with norms and authority (Shavitt, et al., 2012). The relative statuses of the groups they belong to are of more importance to them than individual personal goals. The strongest example of a culture that is horizontal-collectivist can be found in the Israeli kibbutz, where an egalitarian orientation ensures members strive for sociability and interdependence with other members of their group (Shavitt, et al., 2012).

Within the broad categories of individualism and collectivism, the associated attributes show regional and national differences. Consider that societies that are oriented toward individualism are characterized by "self-reliance, independence, and hedonism," yet these attributes are adopted and manifested differently in both subtle and not so subtle ways (Shavitt, et al., 2012: 4). Although Americans, Australians, and Scandinavians are all members of individualist societies, they differ in accordingly: Australians and Scandinavians approve of modest, inconspicuous behavior, with Scandinavians particularly emphasizing conformity. Alternately, in the United States, people tend toward the conspicuous, seeking distinction through success. Communicating with others about successes and achievements is normative (Shavitt, et al., 2012).

Examining the attributes of the collectivist societies by nationality also underscores national differences. Shavitt, et al. (2012), assert that in the vertical-collectivist societies of Koreans and other East Asians, hierarchical relations are characterized by deference to authority and mutual interest in harmony. While social standing is viewed as an artifact of the status of family groups rather than being pegged strongly to individual accomplishments. Harmony and social standing are less valued in the Israeli kibbutz, where horizontal-collectivism assumes equality and enables "honesty, directness, and cooperation" (Shavitt, et al., 2012).

Taking a reductionist approach, which is necessary in an examination of national and cultural traits in a paper of this length, some fundamental assumptions can be put forth that can serve as a platform for managers, supervisors, human resource representatives, and even executives with strategic decision-making authority. The Aer Lingus case study situation (Curley and Royle, 2013) provides an example of managerial changes to a corporate culture that were external to the organization -- imposed, if you will, on workers in order to drive up profitability in a highly competitive market. Although Shavitt, et al. (2012) has not directly addressed the Irish culture and society, it is fairly well established through the political actions of the nationalists that horizontal-individualism is valued. Consider that the airlines flight attendants who most resemble individuals in the horizontal-individualist and vertical-individualist categorical groups are the long-term employees who were stood firm on principles of professionalism and pride in service. And the new employees who were schooled to accept the new work intensified changes and the de-emphasis of professional autonomy with regard to emotional labour demands.

Conclusion

Employees' social orientation toward collectivism and individualism can facilitate or hinder the implementation of policies and procedures related to emotional labour and the impact of other job stresses, such as intensification of work demands (Hahn, 2000; McCarty & Shrum, 2001). Employers are likely to substantially increase the success of their employee training programs when cultural influences are considered and embedded in training curriculum (Brotheridge & Taylor, 2006; Shavitt, et al., 2012). Moreover, a range of organizational strategies can be employed to support implementation fidelity to policies (Grajewski, et al., 2003).

Employers are encouraged to train employees about stress management interventions, peer support programs that may include the encouragement of healthy emotional catharsis through team debriefing opportunities (Brotheridge & Taylor, 2006; Shavitt, et al., 2012). Providing employees opportunities to craft appropriate responses to work demands, using human agency to address the need for acting "as if" they feel positively toward customers and the work situation. Deep acting has been shown to have substantive cultural correspondence, with horizontal and vertical collectivism serving as pivotal variables. Early and realistic portrayal of job demands, particularly with regard to emotional labour and job stressors may contribute to greater job satisfaction and improved coping skills (Sonnentag & Natter, 2004). Emphasizing and encouraging positive off-work activities through training or incentive programs can facilitate rest and work recovery, which are crucial to adequately offsetting the fairly unique work demands experienced by members of a cabin crew (Sonnentag & Natter, 2004). Finally, employers must recognize that implementing cost-cutting strategies that diminish customer service and enjoyment of the travel experience set the company up for strong competition from other airlines (Curley & Royle, 2013). It is a shortsighted tactic and not an effective long-term strategy, as evidenced by a number of airlines that have backpedaled to a less aggressive profit focus. Moreover, target market segmentation would suggest that differentiation of airline services will result in capture of higher-end consumer loyalty, which is a long-term competitive strategy.

Recommendations for managers, supervisors, and corporate policymakers are shown in brief form in Table 1.

Table 1. Occupational Stressors by Cultural Perspective by Managerial Implications

Occupational Stressors

Cultural Perspective

Managerial Implications

Emotional Labour

Mode and duration of delivery of emotional display, and the type of emotional display required, particularly in face-to-face situations play a major role in the experience of stress. Kinman, G. (2009).

Stress management interventions, peer support programs, team debriefings, encouraging healthy catharsis. Different types of training & interventions are needed due to heterogeneity. Kinman, G. (2009).

Deep acting is more effective and less stressful than surface acting. Grandley (2003)

Employee perception of fairness of emotional display rules was a key moderator of the relationship between the performance of strain & emotional labour. Substantive participation by employees in establishing organizational display policies enhances a sense of personal control over this aspect of their work, and help reduce perceptions of emotional dissonance when communicating with customers. Grandley (2003)

Deep acting is associated with both horizontal and vertical collectivism. Brotheridge and Taylor (2006); Shavitt, Torelli, and Riemer (2012).

Some societies are horizontal (valuing equality) whereas others are vertical (emphasizing hierarchy). To this, add the individualism and collectivism dimensions. Deep acting is an attempt to conform to accepted standards as put forth by the employer. It stands to reason that deep acting is more likely to be practiced by those who are want to blend in and not make waves. Deep acting is likely to be acceptable to those people who tend toward horizontal individualism and vertical individualism when they see it as a way to stand out or to demonstrate self-reliance. Brotheridge and Taylor (2006); Shavitt, Torelli, and Riemer (2012).

Locus of Control

Coping strategies differed for externals and internals, which were related to their different patterns of reactivity. Hahn (2000).

Robust relations are seen between collectivism and locus of control, and individualism and economic status.

McCarty and Shrum (2001).

Cabin crew from individualistic societies may expect more social support and autonomy than their job allows, which can lead to poorer role adjustment. Unilateral changes in policies for emotional labour resulted in diminished job satisfaction.

Al-Serkal, A. (2006).

A focus on early… READ MORE

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