Essay on "History of Anthropological Thought"

Essay 12 pages (3689 words) Sources: 1

[EXCERPT] . . . .

Anthropological Thought

Durkheim, E. 1895. What is Social Fact? Rules of the Sociological Method. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Emile Durkheim proposed that the field of sociology was separate from the related sciences of anthropology and psychology. He established that certain types of thought are separate from the individual and reflect ability of the collective to influence the individual. This established a different set of motivations outside of the individual's own freewill and internal motivations.

The first concept that Durkheim establishes is that an individual can be influenced by forces that are outside of their own consciousness. These elements constitute a sense of "social" morality and reflects the position of the person outside of their own internal dialogue. Another concept proposed by Durkheim is that social phenomenon exists regardless of whether every member of a group has common experiences. It only takes a majority of the individuals within a group to constitute a social phenomenon, regardless of the decisions of individuals. The third major concept to Durkheim is that societies can be defined by their common characteristics, just as individuals can be defined by their differences.

Durkheim's work makes one think about the differences between who we are as individuals and who we are as a society. One seldom thinks about what defines society and how society differs from the individual. Durkheim is a basic work, that brings the sociologist back to the roots of society. It is an excellent reading if one wishes to be reminded of the very beginnings of society and social thought. For the anthropologist, it can inspire many hours of contemplation about society and where it began. When one listens to the media and hears about public opinion, Durkheim's work makes one consider what those words mean.

Article Summary #10

Weber, M. 1922. Economy and Society. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Unlike his contemporaries, Weber feels that status and party can cut across class membership. Weber felt that man did not seek economic power so that he could have riches, but because of the feeling that it creates. Social and economic order are different and fulfill a different need in humans.

The first concept that Weber introduces is the idea that class is different from the idea of community. A community may have many different classes of people. These people share a common set of circumstances. The second concept introduced by Weber is that class is tied closely to economic interest and the "market." A social class can take action to collectively raise the status of the entire class. The idea of class entails the expectation of a certain lifestyle. Often these class divisions are stratified geographically, such as referring to certain sections of town as "wealthy" and others as "poor."

The idea of "class" has received a considerable amount of media attention lately. It has been argued that in the United States, the middle class is disappearing and that the economic distance between the wealthy and the poor is widening. I do not know whether I agree or disagree with this statement. However, if one considers the analysis applied by Weber, one would have to take a holistic, rather than an individualistic approach to the topic. According to Weber, the achievement of the status of upper class appears to envelop a sense of honor and integrity. Recent scandals and news of the actions of CEOs lately, makes one wonder if this is still the case. Recent observations seem to indicate that the upper class has become a source of suspicion, rather than honor.

Article Summary #11

Boas, F. 1920. The Methods of Ethnology. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Boas introduced the concept that migration and dissemination were responsible for the development of culture. He deemphasized the importance of biological evolution. One of the most perplexing phenomenons among ethnographers is the development of parallel customs in cultures that are geographically separated. Boas centers on discovering the methods and conditions associated with societal change.

One of the key concepts that Boas introduces is that the history of any particular culture is not predestined by psychology, biology, or physical need. Otherwise, cultures would develop homogeneously. The second concept introduced by Boas is that societies go through cycles of stability and cycles of change. Boas introduces the function of migration in the dispersion and development of customs. As people migrated and came into contact with one another, they exchanged customs and ideas.

The most striking element of Boas' argument that applies to the times that we live in today is that about how society goes through periods of stability and periods of change. One only needs to watch CNN to know that our society is changing. Our values are changing. We are no longer willing to look the other way when the wealthy class uses their power corruptly. In addition, our society has become more safety conscious after the World Trade Tower bombings. We are now more willing to give up individual freedoms and tolerate a few more inconveniences for the sake of safety. In the past ten years, it would be easy to see that our society is not in a period of change. We will not be the one the other side of this economic turmoil as we are today. However, a period of stability after the strife is certain to come, according to Boas.

Article Summary #12

Radin, P. 1927. Right and Wrong. Primitive Man as Philosopher. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Radin examines the development of the concept of right and wrong in primitive cultures. His primary purpose is to demonstrate the amount to cultural bias present in Western Anthropology regarding passing judgments. Radin attempts to discover the roots of morality within the civilization. Radin relies heavily upon the morals of the Winnebago tribe to support his arguments.

The first concept introduced by Radin is that primitive tribes relied on a sense of self-discipline and self-control to maintain a sense of morality within the group. Among the Winnebago, many rules are observed for the benefit, or reduction of threat, to the one performing the action. Many of these actions are not performed for their own sake. The second concept introduced by Radin is that primitive people were guided by selfish motives, unlike today's society. Our reasons for altruism have changed. The third concept is that morality derives from the distribution of emotions to others in the community.

Radin feels that we no longer rely on selfish motives for altruistic actions. However, I disagree, to a certain degree. In our society, performing acts of altruism is regarded as an honorable act. When one receives a public reward or some type of recognition, it encourages altruism. It becomes an object of desire and the reward becomes a motivator. Even if no concrete reward is received, the person performing the altruistic behavior derives a sense of satisfaction and well-being from their sacrifice. They still receive a reward of some type for their actions. It is difficult to keep a set of volunteers who have a bad experience repeatedly. They was some sense of higher satisfaction or incentive to continue. I do not agree with Radin in that society has changed all that much in regards to selfish motives for altruistic acts.

Article Summary #13

Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. In Anthropological Theory: An Introductory Theory. Fourth Edition. R. McGee and Richard Warms. McGraw Hill

Malinowski explores the economic exchange and rituals of the tribes of the Pacific islands. The Kula represents a unique economic system where the men that exchange goods do not keep them for very long, but pass them on to another as part of the exchange system. One of the most interesting aspects of the Kula is that it is not an exchange of items of need, but of items that are frivolous and of no use. The author uses the Kula as an example of economic enterprise carried out entirely for ceremonial purposes.

The key concept that the author conveys is how the ceremonial nature of the Kula compares with other forms of economy around the globe. The Kula is unique, as it is based on ceremony instead of need. One of the most remarkable aspects of the Kula is the complexity and trouble that it involves. The tribesmen must make long, dangerous ocean voyages to carry out the exchange. There is much haggling and bargaining that take place during the ceremony. Yet, it is all carried out for strictly ceremonial purposes. The author uses the Kula to serve as a comparison to modern economics.

One of the most interesting points of this article was that an economy developed, not out of need, but for social purposes alone. The Kula is a uniting factor for the tribesmen. Modern… READ MORE

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